Zhang Zai believes that if people are born in the world, they should respect God's will, establish heaven, stand on the ground, establish people, be sincere, upright, have self-esteem, be knowledgeable, be reasonable, cultivate one's morality, keep a house in order, rule the country and level the world, and strive to reach the realm of sages. Feng Youlan, a contemporary philosopher, summed up the four sentences of Hengqu, which embodies Guan Xue's main thought: "Make a heart for heaven and earth, make a life for the people, link the past with the future, and make the world peaceful".
The new schools of thought in Guanluo and Zhuomin are rooted in the Book of Changes and Confucius and Mencius. They absorb, merge and criticize each other in the process of development, including the criticism and absorption of Buddhism. This is a * * * feature of the whole history of Confucianism, but it has its own characteristics in ontology, epistemology, dialectics, harmony theory and educational proposition.
1. Qi-based theory-Qi is too weak and everything is gasified.
Whether the origin of the universe and the world is matter or spirit has always been the most basic question in philosophy, and it is also a question that every philosopher must answer. The answers of ancient philosophers in China to this question can be roughly divided into two categories: one is that "mind" or "reason" is the origin of the universe; Second, qi is the source. Zhang Zai believes that "Qi" or "vitality" is the highest system and the initial foundation of human beings and all things. This "qi" or "vitality" includes the relationship between Yin and Yang, which is interdependent, complementary and ups and downs. In the interactive movement of this relationship, people and everything are produced. It can be said that Zhang Zai is the most outstanding representative of China history and ancient naive materialism philosophy.
Zhang Zai inherited and developed the ancient category of "Taixu", and reformed and sublated it to express the basic form of material existence and the basic state of material movement, and put forward the materialistic world outlook of "Taixu is qi", "Qi is noumenon" and "gasifying everything". At the same time, it demonstrates the material eternity theory that qi has no life and no death. Since Zhang Zai, the theory of ancient people's understanding of the material world has been systematized.
Zhang Zai believes that the ontology of the universe, the starting basis of everything is qi, everything comes from gasification, and all kinds of things are different manifestations of qi. Whether it is a concrete existence or an invisible nothingness, its essence is existence, not nothingness. When you say, "Too much deficiency leads to qi, and there is nothing." Because the gas of matter, as the ontology of the universe, only has different forms of existence, rather than the extinction and disappearance of matter itself, gas exists forever. In this way, Zhang Zai's thought about the material unity and material eternity of the world is the highest achievement of classical simple materialism.
Second, dialectics-one thing and two bodies, movement must be organic.
On the basis of the original ontology of "too empty is qi", Guan Xue expounded the contradictory movement, development and change of all things in the universe and their laws, as well as the methods to solve contradictions, and many of his opinions were quite profound and incisive.
Zhang Zai believes that the natural state of qi is intangible and too empty, and its basic characteristics are dynamic and static, full of chaos in the universe, and constantly changing in different forms such as "stagnation and coagulation, health and smoothness". Everything's life and death, dynamic and static changes are the embodiment and result of various changes of Qi. The reason why Taixu Qi can constantly move and change is because Taixu Qi is a combination of Yin and Yang. Taixu is a chaotic state of yin and yang, also known as Yuanji. Yin and Yang are divided into Tai Chi, Infinity and Tai Chi, and Tai Chi gives birth to two devices-Yin and Yang. Everything is produced by the interaction of yin and yang. Too empty qi contains two contradictory aspects: Yin Qi and Yang Qi. Yang is characterized by clearing, floating, rising and moving; Yin Qi is characterized by turbidity, heaviness, depression and quietness. Yin and Yang are androgynous, opposed to each other, struggling with each other, stirring with each other, interrelated, interdependent, infiltrated and germinated with each other. The so-called "the sun alone does not live, and the lonely yin does not last long." This movement change of the relationship between Yin and Yang is the fundamental reason and motive force of the movement change of all things.
3. Epistemology-knowledge of smell and knowledge of virtue.
In the aspect of epistemology, Guan Xue put forward two concepts: "knowing by hearing" and "knowing by virtue". This is a pioneering work of China's classical philosophy on cognition and epistemology. Zhang Zai believes that people's knowledge is acquired through sensory contact with external things such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and body, that is, "what they hear and know". However, we can't fully understand the tangible things in the world, let alone exhaust the intangible things in the world. To do everything, we must have broader and deeper knowledge than what we hear and see, that is, "knowledge of virtue." The process of human cognition is divided into two stages: olfactory knowledge and virtue knowledge, namely, so-called perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge. Zhang Zai further believes that only knowledge of virtue is real knowledge and can reflect the nature of all things. "What you honestly know is the conscience of heaven, not a little knowledge." ("Zheng Meng Cheng Ming"). When discussing the source of human knowledge, we saw the dialectical relationship between sensibility and rationality, finiteness and infinity, relativity and absoluteness, and phenomenon and essence, and made an incisive exposition, thus making an important contribution to China's ancient epistemology.
The theory of human nature-the nature of heaven and earth, the nature of temperament.
Zhang Zai summed up the theory of human nature since the pre-Qin period, absorbed the advantages and advantages of various theories, and created a unique theory of human nature of Guan Xue.
Guan Xue believes that people and everything are produced and constituted by Qi. Because the turbidity, fineness, clarity, bias and thickness of qi are different, things are different from people, so the essence of qi is the essence of people and everything. According to this, it can be affirmed that people and everything are sexual, and the nature of people and everything comes from "too empty qi". Therefore, sex is eternal, and the innate nature is pure, but there are different physical conditions, physiological characteristics, family environment and natural environment after birth. These external factors are innate, and the acquired nature formed by the combination of heaven and earth, interaction and mutual influence is that there are good and evil in temperament, clear and turbid, which determines the diversity of human nature. In this way, Zhang Zai founded the dualism of human nature.
The integrity of heaven and earth is the source of good, the nature of good and evil is the source of evil and the embodiment of human desire. So far, Guan Xue has made a summary and reasonable explanation of the theory of good nature that has been debated for more than 1000 years. Making mistakes and doing evil is vicious in nature. To be a saint and a gentleman, we must change the nature of temperament, get rid of the mask of temperament, and return to and highlight the nature of heaven and earth. The way to change the nature of temperament is to receive education, learn etiquette and morality, and enrich qi and gather righteousness. "The cultivation of noble spirit must be a collection of benevolence and righteousness, and then you can cultivate noble spirit ... the righteous, self-denial." It is also good to gather righteousness and accumulate goodness. Only by accumulating kindness, self-denial and perseverance can we constantly change our temperament, gain integrity and integrity, and thus reach the realm of sages and gentlemen. The theory of the nature of heaven and earth and the nature of temperament not only provides a reasonable explanation for the good and evil of human nature, but also provides a theoretical basis for the distinction between heaven and human desire, which is an important contribution to China's ancient theory of human nature. Zhu praised Zhang Zai's theory of human nature as "the great contribution of saints, which is beneficial to the study of later generations ..., which has never been mentioned before". ("Zhuzi")
5. Taiji theory-I ching, poor research, dialectical exploration.
Zhouyi, as the head of the classics and the source of the avenue, is the source of China traditional culture. Scholars in the Northern Song Dynasty pushed the study of Zhouyi to a new stage. Zhang Zai's Yi Shuo of Hengqu has been handed down from generation to generation, and its research features are remarkable. His dialectics thought is rich in content, comprehensive in demonstration, profound in meaning and accurate in theory. He was a master of dialectics in ancient China.
(1) longer than the excavation of the Book of Changes. As a realistic life accomplishment, it is a theoretical weapon and belief principle to participate in social change. He "cherished heaven and earth and served the people all his life." The ambition, experimental field and political proposition of gradual reform of "connecting the past with the future, creating peace for all generations" all stem from the benevolence and wisdom of Zhouyi.
The concepts of "natural change" and "book change" are put forward for the first time, and the boundaries between subjectivity and objectivity, natural truth and graphic expression are drawn.
(3) Created the Taiji theory of the universe ontology in Zhouyi, such as "Infinite Taiji", "Taiji Yin and Yang" and "One life, two lives and three lives". It puts forward some important concepts, such as "Qi is too empty", "Qi has yin and yang, which promotes gradual change and meets god unexpectedly". Qi is a thing, which is different from subtlety. That is to say, as the most basic substance, qi exists in different forms, either gathering or dispersing. You can't feel it directly with your senses, but you can see it with your eyes and ears when you are clear. Thus, the boundary between the materiality of the universe and the concepts of "emptiness" and "nothingness" of Buddhism and Taoism is clarified.
④ The new development of dialectics in Zhouyi. When describing the general process of contradictory movement of things, Zhang Zai put forward that "if there is an image, it is right, and what is right will be reversed;" There is a famous assertion that enemies who oppose Sri Lanka must reconcile. In his view, everything is composed of two opposing aspects, Yin and Yang, which are both opposite and interdependent, interacting with each other and combining rigidity with softness. The end result is "harmony" and unity. " "Harmony" is the unity of various factors and different opposites of things, not a single one. Simple addition and repetition of the same thing. Zhang Zai spent most of his life writing, teaching and educating people. He inherited and developed Confucius' educational thought, promoted the development of Guanzhong education, prospered Guan Xue, educated the people, brought up a large number of scholars and changed Guanzhong folk customs.
Zhang Zai's educational thought of Guan Xue mainly includes the following aspects:
First, educate people, change their temperament and seek saints.
Zhang Zai believes that there is nothing wrong with human nature, that is, the nature of heaven and earth, only because of the obstruction and blockage of temperament. In order to make people kind, we must change our temperament through education and study, return to kindness, and become moral people. The ultimate goal of education is to reach the realm of saints.
Second, teach when you are young and learn when you grow up.
Zhang Zai attaches great importance to the study of educational theory and has unique opinions. It is believed that the education of people should start from the early stage and carry out prenatal education. "Teach when you are young and learn when you are old." Pay attention to children's psychology, create a good environment, develop children's nature, cultivate children's good habits and moral behaviors from an early age, and continue to learn and strengthen when they grow up, and finally create useful talents (quoted from Zhang Zi). Paying attention to early education and continuing education is another feature of Zhang Zaiguan's educational thought.
Third, be determined to study and be diligent.
Zhang Zai believes that "ambition" is the major premise of education. If a person wants to learn knowledge and be an official, he must be "determined" and "upright". "If people don't stay away from their interests and are absent-minded, they will accomplish nothing." With lofty goals, we must work hard to achieve them and realize our ideals. ("The Cave of Confucian Classics" and "Being Dreaming")
Fourth, step by step, be knowledgeable and thoughtful.
Zhang Zai also made an in-depth study of learning methods. He believes that learning and seeking knowledge is a gradual process. You can't stop, and you can't wait for instruction. Teachers should teach in order and students should learn in order. He also believes that the gradual process of learning should be "three years", and scholars should study hard every day from morning till night, from day to month, to the three-year outline. Through such gradual efforts, learning can be successful. If you want to succeed in your studies, you must also be knowledgeable and thoughtful. (The Cave of Confucian Classics)
Fifth, study hard and be skeptical and innovative.
Regarding reading methods, Zhang Zai emphasized that the main organ of human thinking is the "heart". In order to think carefully and observe carefully, you must keep your mind always present. If you have doubts about it, you will gain new knowledge and know new principles. Therefore, he advocates the method of learning and the spirit of seeking knowledge (quotations from Zhang Zi). The main points of Zhang Zai's discussion on the method of reading and seeking knowledge are summarized as follows: intention, familiarity, careful thinking, perseverance, confusion, innovation, lack of help, short time, theory, development, implementation and implementation. Zhang Zai's exposition on reading and seeking knowledge has been repeatedly evaluated by later scholars. For example, Zhu's "Recent Thoughts Volume III" said: "This theory is very appropriate, if you don't go to the old place to see new ideas."
Sixth, inspire and induce, and teach students in accordance with their aptitude.
As an outstanding and successful great educator, Zhang Zai has a unique and profound exposition on teaching principles and educational laws. Zhang Zai advocates that in the actual teaching process, teachers should be persuasive, inspire and guide students' knowledge awareness and interest in learning. At the same time, we should teach students in accordance with their aptitude and meet the different needs of all kinds of students, so as to achieve the teaching goal. The specific teaching methods advocated by Guan Xue mainly include:
(1) "Knock at both ends" method. This is the inheritance and development of Confucius' teaching methods. That is, explain the problem from both positive and negative aspects, or analyze the problem from both causes and results, so that students can understand the correct answer to the question. "I don't know, I know, I don't know, I am ignorant. It is because you asked questions that Zhong Ni exhausted both ends and was empty. "
(2) "bell buckle method". Zhang Zai explained the Book of Rites and said: "Be kind to the questioner, such as ringing a bell; Small knocks will ring; If you knock loudly, you will knock loudly and calmly. Then do your best. People who are not good at answering questions are the opposite. This is the way to learn. " This passage says: "Hong Zhong has never heard the sound, and the buckle is the sound;" A saint never knows, but knows to ask, and makes good use of what he can, instead of teaching after he asks. "(Zhengmeng Zhongzheng).
③ "Time Rain Method". Zhang Zai believes that human education is like "timely rain". Only by teaching in time and answering questions in time can we get good results.
4 "Don't talk about the law". Zhang zai believes. Some knowledge doesn't need to be discussed. You know it when you ask it, and you know it when you know it, so you don't need to talk about it, let alone talk about it. He said: "The study of saints is not about an article. If the speaker has doubts, he must ask them clearly and don't know until he distinguishes them. If a scholar knows something, he can decide whether he can self-determine, let alone theory. It means to ask, know, is it possible. Make your own decisions, not influenced by the teacher's ability, decide right and wrong by yourself, and give full play to students' subjective consciousness, which is also an important method of inspiration and induction.
Seven, open-minded knowledge, choose good and follow.
Zhang Zai believes that to learn knowledge, we must be open-minded and open-minded, so as to accept everything, integrate all kinds of knowledge and enter the realm of God. Modesty means not keeping what you have in mind and interfering with the acceptance of new knowledge, so modesty means "meditation" and "quietness". Zhang Zai said: "Heaven and earth take emptiness as virtue, and it is better to be empty. The virtual is the ancestor of heaven and earth, and heaven and earth come from emptiness. " (quotations from Zhang Zi). "Static is the foundation of goodness, and emptiness is the foundation of static. Static is opposite to dynamic, and emptiness is one." "Homologous with the sky is empty, and it is necessary to do facts, so it is called reality." "The way of heaven and earth, nothing more than the actual situation, people must seek truth from the actual situation. The sage is empty, and the good is fine. " (quotations from Zhang Zi). Zhang Zai advocates that people must get rid of "meaning, importance, reality and self" in order to achieve sincerity, morality and tranquility. We should learn from all kinds of characters, don't be shy to ask questions, choose the good ones and learn from them.
Eight, learning is expensive and useful, and Dao Ji is the world.
Zhang Zai believes that the ultimate goal of education is to make people change their temperament and become sages. Education must focus on discipline and benefit all beings. Educating students is useful to the world and people. Therefore, it is particularly emphasized that "learning is valuable and useful" and "applying what you have learned", and it is opposed to learning without using it. This is the outstanding feature and advantage of Guan Xue's style of study. Zhang Zai believes that the study of saints is to eliminate the worries of the country and the nation, and it is useless for saints not to worry about the people of the country. The Northern Song Dynasty is a dynasty with distinctive features in the history of absolute monarchy in China, with relatively free thoughts and academics, and the development and research of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism have reached a new stage. At the same time, the invention and creation of traditional industry and commerce and natural science are also unprecedentedly active.
Zhang Zai is not only unique in the study of Confucianism and Zhouyi, but also has made remarkable achievements in the study of natural science.
First, break through the geocentric theory.
"The stars don't move, they are purely related to the sky ... the sun, the moon and the five stars go against the sky, and those who are related to the land are also ... slow and uneven, and the nature of the seven strategies is different." It breaks through the geocentric theory since ancient times, regards the sky as a whole with the stars as the center, and the stars of gold, wood, water, fire and earth are inexhaustible, which is a historic breakthrough in people's understanding of the universe.
Second, the theory of celestial bodies.
Guan Xue believes that "the movement must be organic, and the movement does not come from the outside." Zhang Zai pointed out that the celestial bodies such as the sun, the moon, the stars and Chen (called "seven policies and seven wastes") all have their own laws of motion, and the ups and downs of their movements are all due to their own mechanisms, not external forces.
Third, the theory of left-handed and right-handed celestial bodies
Zhang Zai clearly pointed out that the sun, the moon and the stars all turn left along the celestial bodies, but their rotation is a little slow. To the naked eye, it turns to the right. Left-handed and right-handed are actually relative, talking about the relative relationship between the earth's rotation and the revolution of other celestial bodies. He further pointed out that the daily trip is once and the monthly trip is thirteen degrees, so the monthly trip is "the fastest on the right" and "the daily trip on the right is slow". Although it is not accurate, it is a great progress.
Fourthly, explain the geographical phenomenon of astronomical calendar with gasification theory.
For example, "the nature of the sun is yin and the nature of the moon is yang, so when the moon shines, it will be self-sufficient." That is to say, at the new moon, the essence of the moon acts on the sun to produce an eclipse. At the full moon, the essence of the sun acts on the moon, leading to an eclipse. According to this theory, there are also reasonable explanations for natural phenomena such as the change of seasons, the alternation of cold and summer, tidal fluctuation, lightning, frost, snow and rain.