The concept of placing curses on tombs or cemeteries is best known in ancient Egypt, but the practice was quite common in other ancient civilizations. The grave or tomb is the eternal home for the physical remains of the deceased, to which his or her soul can return at will, equipped with all the keepsakes, tools, food and drink, and various items the deceased wanted or needed in the next life. Therefore, many of these tombs (especially those of the upper classes and nobles) were veritable treasure troves and attracted the attention of robbers.
In addition, those who cannot afford to bury their dead relatives—or do not want to spend the money—might secretly bury them in someone else's grave, or someone who cannot afford a tombstone may steal an already used one. past, scratch off the previous person's name and use it for your own purposes. To prevent these violations of graves, curses warning that anyone who disturbed the graves would face dire consequences - as well as fines from authorities - were often included in epitaphs.
Examples of cursed epitaphs range from ancient China to Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome and Britain, and a significant number of epitaphs have been found outside of Egypt in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) . Anatolia - and the region of Silesia in particular - has long been associated with piracy so the large number of cursed epitaphs in the region was most likely a response to criminal elements and a necessary measure to prevent tomb robbing. Although the study of these Anatolian epitaphs shows that they were used by all peoples, as well as by different religions (there was a large Jewish community in Anatolia), the majority of those that have survived are Greek. This is because of the many Greek colonies in the area and their concepts of the afterlife.
The Greek Afterlife
To desecrate someone's tomb is to desecrate their memory, and if the tomb is damaged, the soul's well-being in the afterlife may be jeopardized.
The ancient Greeks believed that an individual's soul survived physical death and continued on to the afterlife. After death, the soul was judged by the three judges of the underworld, Aeachus, Minos and Rhadamantis, and was sent to its proper realm based on what it had done during life and the mercy of the judges. The souls of the wicked were sent to Tartarus; ordinary people - without distinction between good and evil - went to the Narcissus Meadow, those wounded by love went to the Land of Pathos, and those who lived virtuous lives were directed to the Islands, where there are also The land of bliss. blessing. The soul ends up in any of these realms, and its continued existence and prosperity depend on the memories of the living. Friends and relatives of the deceased need to remember them to keep their souls strong and vibrant.
A grave or grave is not only a home for the deceased's remains and personal possessions, but a visceral reminder of who they were in life and that, of course, they existed and deserve to be commemorated. To desecrate someone's grave is to desecrate their memory, and if the grave is vandalized badly enough, or the tombstone is actually stolen, the soul's well-being in the afterlife can be jeopardized. Scholar Andreas Vourloumis comments:
A major human concern with death is of course to be remembered after they pass away, but also to be buried properly so that their soul can rest in another place and continue its journey. Life... Epitaphs contain numerous funeral incantations/injunctions as an effort to protect the grave; these are publicly inscribed on the tombstone by the grave owner as a warning to any potential offenders. (2)
The grave needs to be left intact and undisturbed so that the soul can rest in peace in the afterlife, if not the consequences can be dire not only for that soul but also for the relatives of the deceased who are still living . A soul haunted by a desecrated grave may return to the living, causing grief ranging from impaired physical and mental health to financial hardship and even death. To keep the soul happy—both for itself and for the living—curses and fines warning the blasphemers were expressly prescribed in the epitaphs.
Greek Curses and Fines
Greek curses were believed to be guarantees of justice in this life or the next, as they invoked the gods to protect the innocent while promising punishment for transgressors. As scholar HS Versnel explains, these curses are of course not limited to cemeteries, but can be placed anywhere via constructs called curse tablets:
A curse is the hope that evil may befall a person or persons desire on the body. Within this broad definition, several different types can be distinguished based on circumstances, motivations, and conditions.
The most straightforward curses are those motivated by hateful sentiments and lack any clear religious, moral, or legal legitimacy. Typical of this category are the so-called curse tablets (Greek: katade ***os; Latin: defixio), thin sheets of lead inscribed with curses intended to influence people's behavior or welfare. (Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization, 201)
These curses most often take the form of prescriptions, such as "If anyone moves my tombstone (or boundary stone or something like that), they may be subject to such and such a curse , I ask the gods (whoever the situation requires) to bear witness and be on my side." As mentioned before, people believe they can rely on curses such as deterrence, but to be on the safe side against violations. Criminal prosecution was also explicitly stated as a threat to the tomb robbers. In ancient Athens, tomb robbers were sentenced and the fines were not cheap. Scholar Danielle S. Allen writes:
It is estimated that the cost of food for an adult male for a year was 36 drachmas, while the daily wage for unskilled labor in the late fourth century was 1.5 drachmas, thus a fine of 10 And the power of 50 drachmas was the consequence...even relatively minor court cases could result in fines of up to 1000 drachmas. (4)
Sometimes the owner of a grave will include the fine in the epitaph, but if not, it will be decided by the court. There were no prescribed fines on the books that judges could refer to, rather the Athenian courts would impose whatever punishment they agreed to depending on the crime and the circumstances of the defendant. However, not even hefty fines or the wrath of the gods could deter tomb robbers - as in any ancient civilization - for the simple reason that the rewards outweighed the risks. Sometimes a fortune can be found even in an obscure grave, and if one can let go of belief in the gods and their justice, all one has to do is not get caught.
Cybele and Anatolian Tomb Cult
Ignoring the gods was not easy, however, as not only were they cursed, but their images were often set inside cemeteries and Statues around. The Greeks who settled in Anatolia brought their beliefs with them, but over time these beliefs merged with the religions of the indigenous peoples. The ancient Luwians and Hatti people have lived in the area since BC. 2500 BC A mother goddess who was adopted by the Phrygians (c. 1200-700 BC) was worshiped simply as Matar (Mother), but better known by her nicknames Kybeleia (Mountain) or Cybele. The center of her worship was at Pesinus in Phrygia (central Anatolia), and she was worshiped in the Anatolian kingdom of Lydia, along the coast and elsewhere in the region.
Cybele was the goddess of fertility, but was also responsible for people's health and general well-being, protecting them in times of large-scale trouble (such as war or famine) as well as personal hardship. Her consort was Attis, the resurrected plant god, and her sect encouraged belief in immortality after death, thus emphasizing the importance of protecting tombs and tombs.
Statues of Cybele, sometimes accompanied by lions or other animals symbolizing power, were placed in temples used to delineate one region or region from another. For example, statues of Cybele were erected between buildings to indicate that one building's business was different from that of another, as well as between properties serving the same purpose. The image of Cybele not only serves as a reminder to respect the space of others, but also serves as a strong boundary that prohibits people from crossing from one area to another without a valid reason - meaning "no good deed" to the other person mean". In the same way, temples at Cybele were built outside tombs and tombs, and in doing so, according to scholar Sharon R. Steadman, "the Phrygians created sacred spaces to mark the boundaries between the living and the dead" (572 ).
Just as Cybele guards people's farmlands, homes, and businesses, she guards their graves and ensures they remain pristine. However, if for some reason she was distracted or otherwise involved when the tomb robbers showed up, the same types of curses and threats of fines as in ancient Greece would appear in the epitaph.
Anatolian Curses and Tombs
As HS Versnel explains, Anatolian curses follow the Greek paradigm and almost always fall under the modern category of "conditional curses" Definition:
A conditional curse (curse) to curse unknown persons who dare to violate certain stipulated sacred or secular laws, regulations, and treaties. They are common in the public sphere and are expressed by the community through its representatives (sheriffs, priests). A unique combination of curses and prayers [their most common characteristic with judicial prayers]. The culprit thus found himself in the position of a person guilty of blasphemy, and thus the legal powers could enforce their rights even in circumstances where only the gods could help. (Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization, 201)
Even these threats and court proceedings from Cybele did not deter the tomb robbers, and the description of the contents of Lydia's Anatolian tomb nicely illustrates why. Scholar Elizabeth Baum writes:
Lydian tomb offerings were not specific to certain burial types. The same kinds of objects were found in various tombs in Lydia, the most common of which were ornaments and banquet paraphernalia. It is often clear that the deceased was buried wearing jewelry and other apparel [for example] the untouched young "bride" was buried in a sarcophagus within a necropolis room: the location of the discovery indicates that she was dressed in gold, the fillet in her hair, gold earrings and beaded necklaces, gold rings decorated with lions, and garments sewn with gold appliqué plaques. Although there has been little analysis of skeletal evidence from Lydian tombs, it is unlikely that this jewelry was restricted to female burials. Many other cemetery burials and looted graves have yielded necklaces, rings, earrings, bracelets, pins, brooches and costume accessories. These items are usually made of gold, but glass and colored stones such as onyx and carnelian are also used. (6)
To protect these treasures, the curses and fines in the epitaphs are very clear. They had to pose enough of a threat to at least make potential robbers think twice about risking disturbing the tomb. Here are some examples provided by the work of Andreas Vourloumis:
Anatolian tombstone, provenance unknown, c. AD 154: "Whoever takes a piece from this monument will let his child die in the same way." (8)
Anatolian tombstone, unknown date: " In this tomb, unless I myself gave permission during my lifetime or left a will, if anyone is brought in to bury someone, he will pay a fine of 5,000 dinars to my beloved city and be responsible for robbing the tomb." (10)
Anatolian tombstone found in Lycia during the Roman Empire: "Anna and her son Hiron, because of her son Polemon, built this monument; if anyone moved these monuments, he might Destroyed along with his descendants ” (6)
Vourloumis points out how curses involving threats to the children of robbers were considered particularly effective because one not only risked his own life; putting their lives in danger. Furthermore, since the sins of fathers were punished in their sons—according to Mesopotamian tradition, long before the concept appeared in the Bible (Exodus 20, Numbers 14, etc.)—grave robbing Those risking not only the future health and happiness of their children but their children's children.
Still, as Vourloumis also points out, even this is not enough of a deterrent, as one's current needs will supersede any other considerations:
Marble as a raw material, In ancient times, they were very expensive and tombstones were frequently robbed. The existing inscriptions on the stolen stele were completely scraped off and new words were engraved on them. (2)
This is a particularly horrific crime because it erases the person's memory from his or her final resting place. Taking away someone's headstone is erasing any trace of who they were and what they meant to others while they were alive. Vourloumis writes:
Considering that the stele was the most characteristic element of his identity, the Greeks and [later] Christians considered the removal of the tombstone the gravest insult to the deceased and his tomb.
(2)
It would be even more appalling if a marble monument was appropriated by an individual, because they would be using it for the same purpose, knowing full well its importance. Most likely, though, most were taken by thieves who sold them to merchants or pirates who traded elsewhere. Anatolia has been associated with piracy since at least the time of the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten (r. 1353-1336 BCE) and probably before. Piracy among the Anatolian Lucans can be traced back to the reign of Akhenaten, as he wrote to another king to complain. The Silesian Corsairs were the most famous pirates in the region, with a network that spanned Anatolia, most likely stretching from the southern coast of Silesia to the northern territories once controlled by the Luccans.
Conclusion
For historical reasons, the record of convictions and punishments of tomb robbers in Anatolia is far less comprehensive than in other regions such as Egypt. Anatolia was repeatedly conquered by other nations (Akkadians, Hittites, Assyrians, Phrygian Persians, Alexander the Great, Seleucids, Ptolemaics, Romans, Armenians, Byzantines, and * ** Caliphate) conquered and divided into independent kingdoms, with little concern for the former inhabitants.
However, efforts to reduce tomb robbing are likely to follow a similar pattern to ancient Egypt. When politics and the economy are stable, graves are still stolen, but not nearly as frequently or with as much brazenness as during recession or weakness. As the New Kingdom (c. 1570 BCE - c. 1069 BCE) was winding down, thieves were more concerned with how they would support their families than with the impact any curses or laws might have on them.
Egyptian court records from c. In fact, 1110 B.C. makes it clear that law enforcement officials and court scribes were easily bribed, and some of the most **** tomb robbers, who caused irreversible damage to tombs far beyond what was necessary to steal, often Free confinement after a brief sojourn (Lewis, 256-257). In Anatolia, the paradigm is probably the same, in that people will always go out of their way to serve their own interests, and no amount of curses, no matter how terrible, or threats of fines, no matter how severe, or ever, will change it.