From 184 1 to 19 12, how much land was ceded by the unequal treaties signed between China and foreign countries?

In the modern history of China, 29 unequal treaties were signed with foreign countries.

Since 1840 Opium War, China has signed a series of treaties with other countries, most of which are generally regarded as unequal.

Judging from the signing of the treaty, it was an equal agreement announced by the two sides through negotiation, but in fact, the negotiations between the two countries always went through a war-the decadent Qing Empire was no match for modern imperialist countries in foreign economy and national defense. After a war, the China administration rarely used the war, but let other countries take the initiative in the war, forcing the China administration to negotiate as a means to avoid greater losses; When negotiating, the agents of China government often have only the choice of "accepting" and "not accepting". As representatives sent by the autocratic emperor, these agents can only sign these treaties for the benefit of the royal family.

Most historians in China divide the unequal treaties signed before 1949 into three stages:

The first stage (1840 ——1860)

This stage is not only the beginning of China's transition from a monarchical society to a semi-colonial society, but also the formative stage of the colonial system established by the great powers in China. At this stage, the signing of treaty of nanking marks the establishment and initial formation of the unequal treaty system in China. Treaty of nanking, Wang Xia Treaty and Huangpu Treaty constitute the most important cornerstones of China's unequal treaty system. Through these three unequal treaties, the three most powerful capitalist countries in the world at that time: the United States, Britain and France gained the following rights in China:

1. Trade rights in free foreign trade and unilateral MFN treatment.

2. The right to agreed tariffs.

3. Obtain the right to preach in China and rent land to build houses.

4. Obtain consular jurisdiction.

5. Occupy part of China territory.

These unequal rights constitute the earliest unequal treaty system in China, and subsequent concessions, inland river cruises and high reparations are only the continuation, development and supplement of the above rights.

1853, a knife uprising in Shanghai gave the British an excellent opportunity to control China Customs. 14 years after the first opium war, Britain and France once again provoked the second opium war to expand their rights and interests in China, which lasted for four years and brought a series of new treaties:

1. Sino-British, Sino-French, Sino-American, Sino-Russian Tianjin Treaty and Sino-Russian Aihui Treaty (1858)

2. Sino-British, Sino-French and Sino-Russian Beijing Treaty (1860)

The new unequal treaties brought about by this war deepened the degree of semi-colonization of China, and European and American countries gained some new treaty privileges:

1. Territorial claims with a strong appetite.

2. Requirements for expanding foreign trade window.

3. Inland navigation rights.

4. Legal rights of opium trade.

5. The right to move freely in the Mainland.

6. The right of workers to go abroad.

Most of the unequal treaties in this period revolved around trade. For the capitalist countries at that time, the improvement of productivity after the industrial revolution brought a large number of goods, and the profit from selling goods in the domestic market could not fully satisfy the capitalist's desire, so it was necessary to open up new overseas markets. Therefore, all countries adopt the economic policy of free trade, and all foreign policies formulated by the government are aimed at expanding trade targets and realizing commodity export. Opening the door to China, establishing colonies, demanding five-port trade and agreeing to tariffs are all concrete manifestations of this policy. Faced with the stubborn Qing government, countries used force to force the China government to negotiate first, and then obtained trade privileges and commodity markets.

The second stage (1860—19 19)

After the signing of the Beijing Treaty, the Qing empire carried out the reform of the Westernization Movement. During the period after 1860, the Qing government was "peaceful at home and abroad", which was called "tongzhi zhongxing". However, the good times did not last long, and western capitalist countries entered the stage of imperialism one after another. 1876 Yantai treaty was signed due to the Ma Jiali incident. 1883, France launched a war of aggression against Vietnam. In this war known as the Sino-French War, the Qing army won a decisive victory on the land battlefield after losing the Mawei naval battle. At this time, the Qing government advocated victory and peace. 1885, Li Hongzhang signed the New Testament between China and France with French Minister Badeno, which humiliated the country. This war showed the achievements of the Westernization Movement, but it also exposed the serious shortcomings of the Westernization Movement.

At this time, Japan was in the Meiji Restoration period; They made a "continental policy" of invading China, and carried out their plan step by step by expanding their troops to prepare for war. After everything was ready, 1894, Japan launched the so-called Sino-Japanese War. Due to the corruption of the Qing government, the war soon failed. 1895 Li Hongzhang and Ito Bowen signed treaty of shimonoseki in Chunfan Building, Maguan, Japan.

Since then, the great powers have wantonly divided their spheres of influence in China and seized leased land, and the contradiction between the Chinese nation and foreign countries has intensified day by day. The Boxer Rebellion with the slogan of "Helping the Qing Dynasty to Destroy the Foreign Countries" rose rapidly in the north of China (there are similar movements in the south on a smaller scale). The Boxer Movement is also extremely exclusive, opposing aggression and hating all foreign things. Killing foreigners and China people who believe in Christianity everywhere in North China, burning churches, railways and other things related to foreign countries. Foreigners flocked to the embassy to take refuge. In the name of protecting overseas Chinese, the powers joined forces with Britain, France, the United States, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy and Austria to enter China, then landed in Tianjin and headed for Beijing. The Qing government, on the other hand, asked the Boxers and Qing soldiers to besiege foreign embassies in Beijing and declare war on eleven countries. After Eight-Nation Alliance invaded Beijing, the Qing royal family left hastily; Li Hongzhang came forward to make peace with the powers in the name that the government was threatened by the Boxer Rebellion. The Boxer Rebellion was wiped out by Sino-foreign joint efforts. At the same time, Russia seized the opportunity to occupy the northeast of China. 190 1 year, Li Hongzhang, on behalf of the Qing government, signed the "Xin Chou Treaty" with 1 1 country. Because of the contradiction between the great powers, China was prevented from being carved up. However, the treaty has punitive provisions for China, including allowing foreign countries to station troops from Beijing to Tianjin and compensating countries for their large military expenditures. Li Hongzhang died of illness soon. This treaty further weakened the rule of the Qing government.

The third stage (1919-1949)

At this stage, the unequal treaty system rooted in China for nearly 80 years began to shake. Earlier, the Soviet Union announced the abolition of the unequal treaty signed between Tsarist Russia and China (there have been rumors, but there is no evidence that the Soviet Union did this or made this statement. ); Domestic democratic consciousness and the concept of saving the nation from extinction are rising day by day, and large-scale mass gatherings are one after another. The Beiyang government at that time was under great pressure. 19 19 The May 4th Movement broke out, which showed the determination of the Chinese nation not to be trampled on. As a result, at the Paris Peace Conference held in France, the representative of China did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, which harmed the rights and interests of China. Shortly thereafter, with the realization of unified Russia, the Kuomintang of China led the Northern Expedition. Since the founding of the Nanjing National Government of the Republic of China in 1927, there has been a continuous movement to reclaim power and "amend the New Testament" in Chinese mainland, which has greatly satisfied China's national pride.

During this period, although the government in charge of state power did not dare to completely abolish all unequal treaties, it had already recovered some state sovereignty. Its main activities are:

1. Recycling discount: including 1927, 1. The National Government ordered the reclamation of land in the British Concessions in Hankou and Jiujiang where the Thirteen Tragedies occurred. 1 930 65438+1October1recapture British-occupied Ahava; 193 1 year 1 month 65438+5 to recover the Belgian concession in China.

2. Recovering tariff sovereignty: one of the achievements of the New Testament Movement: 1933, the National Government implemented new tariffs, which indicated that China basically realized tariff autonomy.

3. Abolish consular jurisdiction and MFN treatment.

However, this series of activities did not completely rid China of the semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, because China's national strength at that time was not enough to confront the world powers, and the government was afraid of the strong reaction or even the use of force that countries might make after the abolition of the unequal treaties; The national government needs foreign economic and diplomatic support and cannot accept the situation of international isolation. Therefore, after the 1930s, the unequal treaty system was strengthened again. However, countries no longer used the threat of force, but instead exchanged some economic interests or some interests unrelated to the overall situation of China for privileges, or first created the advantage of public opinion to render the interests of signing treaties. For example, the "Hemei Agreement" is that Japan first created the "independence of North China" incident, then explained to the outside world the benefits brought by unprotected North China through public opinion, and finally let the National Government accept the agreement.

Soon, World War II broke out in an all-round way. Because China was at war with Italy and Japan, the unequal treaties in China were abolished. In order to maintain the stability of the anti-fascist alliance, on June194365438+1October 1 1 day, the United States and Britain signed the Sino-US New Testament and the Sino-British New Testament respectively, voluntarily giving up their privileges in the allied country China.

1949 In September, the China People's Political Consultative Conference held in Peiping adopted the same program, and its Article 55 publicly declared that "the people of China and the Central People's Government should review the treaties and agreements made by the Kuomintang, recognize them, or abolish them, or amend them, or rewrite them according to their contents."

catalogue

The following is a list of treaties that the China government or most people in China consider unequal.

1. China-Russia-Mongolia Agreement (June 7, 2004 (19 15), China and Russia, signed in Chaktu, Outer Mongolia).

2. The Fourth People's Treaty (Article 21) (Republic of China, May 25, 4 (19 15), China and Japan, signed in Beijing).

3. Manzhouli Border Agreement (191/year (3 years in Xuan Tong) 65438+February 20th, China and Russia, signed in Manzhouli).

4. China and Britain renewed the Tibet-India Treaty (1906 (thirty-two years of Guangxu), April 27th, China and Britain, signed in Beijing).

5. The meeting between China and Japan in the three northeastern provinces is about (1905 (Guangxu 3 1 year) 65438+February 22nd, the signing place: Beijing).

6. The Treaty of Xin and Chou (190 1 (the 27th year of Guangxu reign), signed in Beijing on September 7th)

7. Guangzhou Bay Concession Treaty (or Guangzhou Bay Concession Treaty signed by China and France) (time: 1899 (the 25th year of Guangxu) 165438+ 10/6); Signing place: Guangzhou Bay; Note: Guangzhou Bay is now Zhanjiang City, Guangdong Province.

8. Make an appointment for ahava (time: 1898 (Guangxu 24th year) July1; Signing place: Beijing; Note: ahava is now Weihai, Shandong Province.

9. Hong Kong boundary exhibition (time: 1898 (Guangxu 24th year) June 9th; Signing place: Beijing; Chinese and English) 10. The Sino-Russian Land Lease Treaty (1898 (the 24th year of Guangxu reign)) was signed in Beijing on March 27th. 1On May 7th, 898, the land renewal treaty of the brigade was signed in Petersburg, Russia).

1 1. Sino-German Jiaoao Concession Treaty (1898 (Guangxu 24th year), Beijing, March 6th; China and German)

12. Sino-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896 (22nd year of Guangxu), signed in Beijing on February/0/).

13. sino-Russian compact (1896 (22nd year of Guangxu), Moscow, June 3rd)

14. treaty of shimonoseki (1895 (Guangxu 2 1), 17 April, Shimonoseki, Japan).

15. printed articles of the sino-British conference (1890 (Guangxu16) March 17, Kolkata, India; Supplementary revision:1893 65438+February 5, Darjeeling)

16. Sino-Portuguese Trade Reconciliation Treaty (1887 (Guangxu 1 3) 65438+February1,with Portugal, Beijing)

17. Sino-British Yantai Treaty (1876 (Guangxu 2 years) Yantai; China and the United Kingdom)

18. China-Japan Beijing special train (1874 (Tongzhi 13) 10+3 1).

19. On the Northwest Border between China and Russia (1864 (Tongzhi 3 years) 65438+1Talbahatai on October 7)

20. Sino-German Trade Treaty (Tianjin September 2 186 1 (Xianfeng 1 1))

2 1. Beijing Treaty

A) Sino-Russian Beijing Treaty (1860 (Xianfeng10)165438+10/4, Beijing)

B) Sino-French Treaty of Beijing (Beijing, 1860 (Xianfeng10) 65438+125 October)

C) Sino-British Beijing Treaty (1860 (Xianfeng10) 65438+1October 24th, Beijing)

22. Tianjin Treaty

A) Sino-French Treaty of Tianjin (Tianjin, 1858 (June 27th, eighth year of Xianfeng))

B) Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin (Tianjin, 1858 (8 years of Xianfeng), June 26th)

C) Sino-US Treaty of Tianjin (Tianjin, 1858 (June 8, Xianfeng))

D) Sino-Russian Treaty of Tianjin (Tianjin, 1858 (June 8, Xianfeng))

23. Sino-Russian treaty of infatuation (Aihui, 1858 (eighth year of Xianfeng), May 28th)

24. Charter of the British-French-American Concession in Shanghai (Shanghai, 1854 (July 5th, Xianfeng four years))

25. Sino-Russian Talbahatai Trade Charter (185 1 year (the first year of Xianfeng), August 6th, Yili).

26. Huangpu Treaty (1844 (Daoguang 24th year) 65438+1October 24th, with Huangpu, France).

27. Wang Xia Treaty (1844 (24th year of Daoguang), signed with the United States and Wang Xia on July 3rd).

28. Humen Treaty (1843 (23rd year of Daoguang) 65438+8 October, with Britain, Humen).

29. treaty of nanking (1842 (22nd year of Daoguang), August 29th, with Britain, Nanjing).

On the Treaty of Nebuchadnezzar Chu: Historically, China and Russia were politically independent, economically independent and militarily weak. The Sino-Russian battle in jaxa was a complete victory for China. When China and Russia signed the treaty, they were not oppressed by each other's military. The two sides signed the Treaty of Nebuchadnezzar Chu voluntarily, so the Treaty of Nebuchadnezzar Chu is an equal treaty. The Treaty of Nebuchadnezzar is not a cession treaty, but a treaty dividing Gorkha tribal areas between China and Russia, which is the first step of dividing outer Mongolia between Qing and Russia. After the signing of the treaty, the Gurkha Mongols had no further retreat, so they had to move south and gradually moved to Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China.

19 17 years, Germany and Austria-Hungary became hostile countries of China in World War I, and the unequal treaties were abolished. 19 17 Soviet Russia voluntarily gave up its privileges in China (it was not fully realized later, and the territory acquired in the treaty was not returned). 1943, the United States and Britain voluntarily gave up their privileges in China. Italy and Japan lost their special status because they became enemies of China in World War II. Both Japan and Italy were deprived of their colonies and concessions in China. 1946, the French gave up their privileges in China.

1949 after the founding of People's Republic of China (PRC), it did not recognize all the unequal treaties signed before.