Voltaire (1694-1778): originally known as Fran-Marie Arouet (Fran? Ois-Marie Arouet), French enlightenment thinker, writer and philosopher. Voltaire was the standard-bearer of the French bourgeois enlightenment in the 18th century, and was known as "the king of French thought", "the best poet in France" and "the conscience of Europe". He advocates natural human rights, thinking that people are born free and equal, and all people have the right to pursue survival and happiness, which is endowed by heaven and cannot be deprived. This is the natural human rights thought.
[ Edit this paragraph] Life
Voltaire was born in a wealthy middle-class family in Paris and received a good education since childhood. His father was a legal notary and hoped that he would be a judge in the future, but he became interested in literature and later became a scholar.
Voltaire was quick-witted and versatile all his life. His works are famous for their sharp language and satirical style. He said, "Laughter can conquer everything. This is the most powerful weapon. " He was twice thrown into the Bastille for satirizing feudal absolutism. His books were banned and he himself was expelled from the country many times. In 1725, he was forced into exile in England, and he took a keen interest in the politics and culture of the British bourgeoisie. He studied British bourgeois constitutional monarchy, Locke's materialist empiricism and Newton's theory of universal gravitation.
Voltaire experienced the rule of Louis XIV, XV and XVI, witnessed the decline of feudal absolutism from prosperity, and felt at first hand that it was decadent and reactionary. He deeply; Anticipating that the revolution was bound to come, he said to his friends, "Everything around me is sowing the seeds of the revolution. Although I may not be a witness to the revolution myself, it is bound to come."
Voltaire has written a large number of literary works, among which the famous ones are the epic Henry Yade, The Girl of Orleans, the tragedy Odeber, the comedy the dissolute son and the philosophical novel The Honest Man. He also wrote many historical works, such as Louis XIV and On the Customs and Spirits of All Ethnic Groups. In philosophy, his representative works include Dictionary of Philosophy, Metaphysics, and Principles of 4 Newton's Philosophy, among which the most influential book is Philosophical Communication, which has been called "the first bomb thrown into the old system".
Voltaire's extraordinary intelligence, sharp thinking and his exposure of dark feudal absolutism made him enjoy high prestige among the people. The ruler also wants to use him. Louis XV asked him to be a court historian, Frederick II, king of Prussia, treated him as a guest of honor, and Catherine II, queen of Russia, met him, but in the end, his rebellion broke up with his thoughts. The bitter experience determined him not to associate with any king again.
Voltaire sharply criticized the dark rule of Cardiff. He compared the Pope to a "bipedal beast", called the priest a "civilized villain" and said that Catholicism was "a most shameful deception trap set by some cunning people". He called on "everyone to fight the appalling religious fanaticism in their own way, and some people bit his ears;" Others stepped on his stomach, and some people scolded him from a distance. " But Voltaire was not an atheist, but a deist. He believes that he wants to rule the people; Religion is indispensable. He said, "Even without God; We must also create a god. "
Voltaire believed in the theory of natural rights, holding that "people are essentially equal" and demanding that everyone enjoy "natural rights". He advocates that everyone is equal before the law, but he thinks that the inequality of property rights is inevitable. He idealized the British constitutional monarchy, and thought that the most ideal thing was for an "enlightened" monarch to govern the country according to the opinions of philosophers. Philosophically, he acknowledged the objective existence of the material world and affirmed that knowledge originated from sensory experience, but he also thought that God was the "first promoter" of the universe. He despised the working people, thinking that they could only do rough work and could not think, saying that "when the common people all thought, it was all over".
it is not surprising that Voltaire, as a bourgeois thinker, has limitations in all aspects. Because he is also deeply branded with the brand of his era and class. However, his great contribution to the anti-feudal enlightenment is still worthy of people's eternal commemoration.
Voltaire's literary views and interests basically inherited the legacy of classicism in the 17th century, mainly manifested in the creation of poems and tragedies. His epic "Henri Yard" (1728) is based on the religious war in France in the 16th century. It describes that Henry IV of Bourbon dynasty became king after his victory in the civil war, and issued a South Amnesty order to protect the freedom of belief of Protestants. Henry IV in the epic is celebrated as an example of an enlightened monarch. Voltaire's philosophical poems are thorough in reasoning, and satirical poems are witty and cool, which are unique. Voltaire was mainly engaged in drama creation all his life, and wrote more than 5 plays, most of which were tragedies. The most valuable of Voltaire's literary works is philosophical novels. This is a new genre he initiated, telling absurd stories in a playful style, insinuating and satirizing reality, and clarifying profound philosophy.
During his stay in Britain from 1726 to 1729, he devoted himself to studying the British political system, philosophy and literature and art. After returning to China, he published "Letters of Philosophy" (also known as "Letters of Britain", 1734), which publicized the achievements of Britain after the bourgeois revolution and criticized the autocratic regime in France. The book was banned after publication, and the Paris court ordered the arrest of the author. He fled to the manor of his girlfriend, Lady Aitley, in Xilei Village and lived in seclusion for 15 years.
In 1746, he was elected as an academician of the French Academy. Voltaire came to Berlin in 175 at the invitation of King Friedrich II of Prussia, under the illusion of an enlightened monarch. He wanted to make a difference in politics, but Friedrich II regarded him as a literary squire. The bitter experience determined him not to associate with any king again.
During this period, he approached the younger generation of enlightenment thinkers and wrote articles for Encyclopedia, which was later included in his book Dictionary of Philosophy (1764).
in 1753, he left Berlin to live in Switzerland.
Since 176, Ferné Manor, which has lived on the border between France and Switzerland, has maintained frequent correspondence with people from various European countries, and actively participated in social activities, writing a large number of pamphlets to expose religious persecution and the darkness of the judicial department under authoritarian regimes.
In the meantime, factional religious struggles took place in France, resulting in a large number of fugitives. Voltaire has taken in hundreds of refugees in his manor. He has also repeatedly resisted injustice, upheld justice for the poor and rehabilitated unjust cases. The biggest impact is the Kara incident.
On October 13th, 1761, a terrible tragedy happened in a house in Filati 'e Street in Toulouse. The owner of this family, Jean Kara, is a respected Huguenot businessman. Late that night, Jean Carla found his eldest son, Mark Anthony, hanging himself in the shop. At that time, the whole family panicked, and his mother burst into tears, alarming the neighbors. Suddenly, someone in the crowd said, "Mark Anthony was killed by his parents because he chose Catholicism." Catholicism and Protestantism experienced a religious war in the 16th century, and it has been more than 2 years, but the opposition is still very sharp. When a judge in Toulouse heard the news, he arrested all the people who were at home on the night of the "murder" without investigating, interrogating or even looking at the scene. Why did marc anthony commit suicide? It turned out that the 28-year-old had studied law and wanted to be a lawyer, but he was forced to engage in business because he could not get a Catholic certificate. He wanted to get a sum of money from his father to do business, but his father refused. Disappointed, he went to the cafe every day to drown his sorrows. Later, because of debt, he felt that his future was bleak, and he found a short-sighted idea. How can an old man with gray hair and near age hang a strong young man? The crime of "murder" is obviously difficult to establish. Prosecutor Diku righteously appeared in court to defend old Carla, but was suspended for three months. Lawyer Xu Del tried to clarify the truth, but the judge, who was in a frenzy of excitement, ignored it and thought the lawyer was incompetent. The presiding judge abused his power and forced Kara to give up his accomplice. Kara said categorically, "Since there is no crime, how can there be an accomplice?" On March 1th, 1762, regardless of all the evidence of innocence, the court rudely sentenced Kara to the punishment of car splitting. Before his execution, old Carla said bitterly, "I have told the truth, and I died innocently ..." Voltaire heard all kinds of rumors soon after the incident. He has always been skeptical about the church, believing that both Catholicism and Protestantism are shameless people. The tragic experience of old man Kara aroused his great indignation against the church and judicial authorities, and he was determined to fight for safeguarding human dignity and freedom of belief. Through various channels, he calmly and personally investigated and collected evidence, and summoned Carla's two sons who were exiled to Geneva to Fernai, and compared the details provided by them with the reflections heard from passing passengers, thus making a personal judgment on the whole incident. In the meantime, he published the confessions of Carla's two brothers, wrote a pamphlet to expose this inhuman injustice, and provided all the expenses for Mrs. Carla to take her to Paris to attract the attention of public opinion. On February 3, 1763, Voltaire personally wrote an appeal and concluded that "I am sure this family is innocent". On March 7, the Privy Council ordered a retrial of the case, and the old man Kara and his family, who had suffered injustice, were finally vindicated.
At the end of this year, Voltaire published his famous On Religious Tolerance, which lashed out at the religious persecution of the reactionary church and the dark phenomenon of disregard for human life, an authoritarian regime, and expounded his idealism and materialism.
Later, he also campaigned for Rabar, a 19-year-old knight who was also persecuted by the church, and Silvant, a geomancer who was over half a year old, and finally rehabilitated these two unjust cases.
In his later years, Voltaire engaged in a lot of creation with more vigorous fighting spirit, and wrote 613 entries for the Encyclopedia, which was compiled into a book in 1764 and published under the title of "Dictionary of Philosophy". In addition, he also published philosophical novels Chadiger, Honest Man, historical works Russian History under Peter the Great and On Parliament.
It is worth mentioning that during his settlement in Ferné, he kept frequent correspondence with people from all walks of life in European countries. According to statistics, there are more than 1, Voltaire's letters that have been preserved, and as many as 7 people have corresponded with him. In this way, he discussed various social problems with his correspondents and publicized his anti-authoritarian and anti-church enlightenment thoughts. Voltaire's tireless struggle won him a great reputation. His name resounded all over Europe, and many celebrities came here to inquire for him. Fernand became the center of European public opinion, and the progressives at that time honored Voltaire as "the patriarch of Fernand."
In February 1778, he returned to Paris to attend the first performance of his tragedy Irena. As soon as the news spread, the whole city became a sensation. Some young people who only heard his name but didn't see him were even more ecstatic, and rushed to his place of stay, making the surrounding streets crowded. When he passed by, the women secretly plucked one or two hairs from his fur coat and kept them as sacred objects.
In Paris, Voltaire was too excited and was forced to stay in bed because of uremia. However, he still insisted on dictating the last five-act poetic tragedy Irena. Although the script was plain, Paris and Versailles reacted strongly during the performance. The queen attended the performance, and Voltaire also dragged his sick body to appreciate this final honor and happiness on the spot.
The church people have ulterior motives and want to use Voltaire's prestige to raise their social status, so they try to make some money from Voltaire's illness.
One day, a priest sneaked into Voltaire's ward and asked Voltaire to make his last confession. Although Voltaire was not an atheist, but a deist, he was always at odds with the church. He knew the priest's purpose well and sent him away rudely.
A few days later, another abbot named Morey repeated his old tricks. As soon as Voltaire saw him come in, he asked,
"Father, where are you from?"
"Ah, sir, I'm from God!"
"really? Can you show me God's letters? "
Although Voltaire was seriously ill, he kept a clear head and mercilessly exposed the ugly faces of these "wolves in monk's clothes" with his unique spicy irony.
On May 12th, Voltaire couldn't stop hemoptysis and his temperature rose sharply. The Duke of Richelieu couldn't bear to see his old friend suffer like this, so he sent him opium tincture. Voltaire was so confused that he drank all the sedatives with remarkable efficacy. Three priests broke in while he was in a coma. When he was a little sober, they asked him if he recognized the sanctity of Christ. Voltaire had already given a negative answer in the Dictionary of Philosophy. When he heard the words "Christ" and "Holy", he flew into a rage, made an amazing move to prop up the sick body, angrily pushed the priest and said, "Let me die in peace."
Voltaire died at 11: pm on May 3, 1778. The reactionary church hated this blasphemous old enemy, and ordered his body to be transported out of Paris overnight and abandoned.
However, Voltaire's contribution to the French Enlightenment in the 18th century cannot be denied. He was recognized as the leader and mentor of the people for most of his life. His thoughts and theories will educate generations, lay a theoretical foundation for the anti-feudal struggle, and arm the minds of the French people for the coming bourgeois revolution. After the French Revolution, Voltaire's bones were buried in the Great Men's Cemetery.
[ Edit this paragraph] Ideas
Voltaire sharply attacked the dark rule of the Catholic Church. He compared the Pope to a "bipedal beast", called the priest a "civilized villain" and said that Catholicism was "a most shameful deception trap set by some cunning people". He called on "everyone to fight the appalling religious fanaticism in their own way, and some people bit his ears;" Others stepped on his stomach, and some people scolded him from a distance. " However, Voltaire is not an atheist, but a deist. He advocates a tolerant attitude towards different religious beliefs and fights against religious prejudice all his life, but he also thinks that religion is essential as a means to curb human lust and bad habits. He believes that he wants to rule the people; Religion is indispensable. He said, "Even without God; We must also create a god. "
Voltaire believed in the theory of natural rights, holding that "people are essentially equal" and demanding that everyone enjoy "natural rights". He advocates that everyone is equal before the law, but he thinks that the inequality of property rights is inevitable. He idealized the British constitutional monarchy, and thought that the most ideal thing was for an "enlightened" monarch to govern the country according to the opinions of philosophers. Voltaire, a thinker in the Enlightenment, reflected the interests of the upper bourgeoisie and advocated an enlightened monarchy. Philosophically, he believed in the empiricism of British materialist philosopher Locke.
in philosophy, he admits the objective existence of the material world and definitely knows the source of mining.