brief introduction
Voltaire (1694- 1778): Formerly Fran-Marie Arouet (Fran? Ois-Marie Arouet), French enlightenment thinker, writer and philosopher. Voltaire was the standard-bearer of the French bourgeois enlightenment in the18th century, and was known as "the king of ideas", "the best poet in France" and "the conscience of Europe". He advocates natural human rights, and believes that all people are born free and equal, and all people have the right to pursue survival and happiness. This right is natural and cannot be deprived. This is an innate idea of human rights.
all one's life
Voltaire was born in a wealthy middle-class family in Paris and received a good education since childhood. His father is a legal notary, hoping that he will become a judge in the future, but he became interested in literature and later became a scholar.
Voltaire was alert and versatile all his life. His works are famous for their sharp language and satirical style. He said, "Laughter can conquer everything. This is the most powerful weapon. " He was twice thrown into the Bastille for satirizing feudal absolutism. His books were banned and he himself was deported many times. He was forced into exile in England from 65438 to 0725, and became interested in the politics and culture of the British bourgeoisie. He studied the British bourgeois constitutional monarchy, Locke's materialist empiricism and Newton's theory of universal gravitation.
1726 to 1729 During his stay in Britain, he devoted himself to investigating the British political system, philosophy, literature and art. After returning to China, he published Philosophical Letters (also known as English Letters, 1734) to publicize the achievements of the British bourgeois revolution and criticize the French autocratic regime. The book was banned after publication, and the Paris court ordered the arrest of the author. He fled to his girlfriend Ms. Aitley's manor in Schiller Village and lived in seclusion for 15 years.
1746 and was elected as an academician of the French Academy. Voltaire came to Berlin in 1750 at the invitation of King Friedrich II of Prussia with the illusion of an enlightened monarch. He wanted to make a difference in politics, but Friedrich II regarded him as a literary squire. The painful experience made him decide not to associate with any king again.
During this period, he contacted the younger generation of enlightenment thinkers and wrote articles for Encyclopedia, which were later included in his book Dictionary of Philosophy (1764).
He left Berlin on 1753 to live in Switzerland.
Starting from 1760, he settled in Fahrne manor on the French-Swiss border, kept frequent correspondence with people from all over Europe, actively participated in social activities, and wrote a large number of pamphlets to expose religious persecution and the darkness of the judicial department under the authoritarian regime.
In the meantime, religious factional struggles occurred in France, which led to a large number of escapes. Voltaire took in hundreds of refugees in his manor. He also repeatedly resisted injustice, upheld justice for the poor and rehabilitated unjust cases. The most influential event is the Kara incident.
17611kloc-0/013 A terrible tragedy happened in a house in Filati Street in Toulouse. The owner of this family, Jean Kara, is a respected Huguenot businessman. Late that night, Jean Carla found his eldest son, marc anthony, hanging himself in the shop. At that time, the whole family panicked, and his mother burst into tears, which alarmed the neighbors. Suddenly, someone in the crowd said, "marc anthony was killed by his parents because he chose Catholicism." Catholicism and Protestantism experienced a religious war in the16th century, which has been more than 200 years, but the opposition is still very sharp. After hearing the news, a judge in Toulouse arrested everyone who was at home on the night of the "murder" without investigating, interrogating or even looking at the scene. Why did marc anthony commit suicide? It turned out that at the age of 28, he studied law and wanted to be a lawyer, but he was forced to engage in business because he could not get a Catholic certificate. He wanted to get some money from his father to do business, but his father refused. Disappointed, he went to the cafe every day to drown his sorrows. Later, because he was in debt, he felt that his future was bleak and he found a short-sighted idea. How can an old man with gray hair and nearly sixty years old hang a strong young man? The crime of "murder" is obviously difficult to establish. Prosecutor Di Ku righteously appeared in court to defend old Carla, but was suspended for three months. Lawyer Huddle tried to clarify the truth, but the judge, who was in a frenzy of excitement, ignored it and thought the lawyer was incompetent. The presiding judge abused his power and forced Kara to give up his partner. Kara said flatly, "Since there is no crime, how can there be an accomplice?" 1762, 10 In March, the court rudely sentenced Kara to dismantle the car regardless of all the evidence of innocence. Before the execution, old Carla said bitterly, "I told the truth, and I died innocently ..." Shortly after the incident, Voltaire heard all kinds of rumors. He has always been skeptical about the church, believing that Catholicism and Protestantism are shameless people. The tragic experience of the old man Kara aroused his great indignation against the church and judicial authorities, and he was determined to fight for human dignity and freedom of belief. Through various channels, he calmly investigated and collected evidence in person, summoned Carla's two sons exiled to Geneva to Ferné, and compared the details they provided with the reflections they heard from passing passengers, thus making a personal judgment on the whole incident. In the meantime, he published the confessions of the two brothers Carla, wrote a pamphlet to expose this inhuman injustice, and provided all the expenses for Mrs. Carla to take her to Paris to attract public attention. 1February 3, 763, Voltaire wrote an appeal in his own hand and made the conclusion that "I am sure this family is innocent". On March 7, the Privy Council ordered a retrial of the case, and Carla, the wronged old man, and his family were finally rehabilitated.
At the end of this year, Voltaire published the famous "On Religious Tolerance", which lashed out at the religious persecution of reactionary churches and the dark phenomenon that authoritarian regimes ignored human life, and expounded his idealism and materialism.
Later, he also ran for the 19-year-old knight Labar and Mr. sylvain, who was over half a year old, who were also persecuted by the church, and finally rehabilitated these two cases.
Throughout his later years, Voltaire engaged in a great deal of creation with more vigorous fighting spirit, and successively wrote 6 13 entries for the encyclopedia, which was compiled into a book in 1764 and published under the title "Dictionary of Philosophy". In addition, he also published philosophical novels Chadiger, Naive Man, Historical Works, Russian History under Peter the Great and On Parliament.
It is worth mentioning that during his settlement in Fernai, he kept frequent correspondence with people from all walks of life in European countries. According to statistics, more than 10,000 letters of Voltaire have been preserved, and as many as 700 people corresponded with him. In this way, he discussed various social problems with his correspondents and publicized his anti-authoritarian and anti-church enlightenment thoughts. Voltaire's tireless struggle won him great fame. His name resounded all over Europe, and many celebrities came here to inquire about him. Fernand became the center of European public opinion, and the progressives at that time addressed Voltaire as "the patriarch of Fernand".
1In February, 778, he returned to Paris to attend the first performance of his tragedy Irena. As soon as the news spread, the whole city was a sensation. Some young people who have only heard his name but have never seen him are even more ecstatic, flocking to his place of residence, making the surrounding streets crowded. When he passed by, the women secretly pulled a hair or two from his fur coat and kept it as a sacred object.
In Paris, Voltaire was so excited that he was forced to stay in bed because of uremia. However, he insisted on dictating the last five-act poetic tragedy Irena. Although the script is unremarkable, Paris and Versailles reacted strongly during the performance. The Queen attended the performance, and Voltaire also dragged his sick body to enjoy this final honor and happiness at the scene.
Church people have ulterior motives and want to use Voltaire's prestige to improve their social status, so they try their best to make some money from Voltaire's illness.
One day, a priest sneaked into Voltaire's ward and asked Voltaire to make his last confession. Although Voltaire was not an atheist, but a deist, he was always at odds with the church. He knew the priest's purpose very well and sent him away rudely.
A few days later, another abbot named Morey did the same thing again. Voltaire saw him come in and asked:
"Dad, where are you from?"
"Ah, sir, I am sent by God!"
"Really? Can you show me God's letter? "
Although Voltaire was seriously ill, he still kept a clear head and mercilessly exposed the ugly faces of these "wolves in robes" with his unique spicy irony.
/kloc-in may of 0/2, Voltaire's hemoptysis continued, and his body temperature rose sharply. The Duke of Richelieu couldn't bear to see his old friend suffer like this, so he sent him tincture of opium. Voltaire was confused and drank all the sedatives with remarkable efficacy. While he was in a coma, three priests broke in. When he was a little sober, they asked him if he recognized the sanctity of Christ. Voltaire has given a negative answer in the Dictionary of Philosophy. When he heard the words "Christ" and "Holy", he flew into a rage, made an amazing move, propped up the sick body, pushed the priest angrily and said, "Let me die in peace."
Voltaire died on1on the afternoon of May 30th, 978 1 1. The reactionary church hated this blasphemous old enemy and ordered his body to be transported out of Paris overnight and abandoned.
However, Voltaire's contribution to the French Enlightenment in the18th century is undeniable. He was recognized as the leader and mentor of the people for most of his life. After the French Revolution, Voltaire's bones were buried in the Great Men's Cemetery.
Hugo
outline
[Edit this paragraph]
Victor hugo (L 802.2.26 ~ 1885.5.22) was the leader of the romantic literature movement in19th century and a representative figure of humanitarianism.
Hugo was born in Sang Song, Dushanbe, in eastern France, near Switzerland. His father was a general under Napoleon. When Hugo was a child, he was stationed in Spain with his father. At the age of 65,438+00, he went back to Paris to study and graduated from high school to study law school. However, his interest is writing. 15 years old won the prize of the French Academy Poetry Competition, and 17 years old won the first prize of "Hundred Flowers Poetry Competition". Later, he was disappointed with the Bourbon Dynasty and the July Dynasty and became a pacifist. He also wrote many poetic dramas and plays, as well as several novels with distinctive characteristics, and carried out his thoughts.
184 1 Hugo was elected as an academician of the French Academy, 1845 was elected as a member of the House of Lords, 1848 was elected as a representative of the Republic of * * after the February Revolution, 18565438 Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte proclaimed himself emperor. Hugo rose up and was forced into exile. During his exile, he wrote
1870 After the French bloodless revolution overthrew Charles Louis Napolé on Bonaparte, Hugo returned to Paris. Hugo's life works cover almost all fields of literature. Critics believe that his creative ideas are closest to modern ideas. After his death, France mourned and was buried in the "Pantheon" where French celebrities gathered to commemorate cards.
Hugo's most legendary romantic story in France is that he met the 26-year-old actress Juliet Derouet at the age of 30 and fell in love with her. No matter whether they were together or apart, Hugo wrote her a love letter every day until she died at the age of 75. In the past 50 years, Hugo wrote nearly 20,000 letters without interruption.
The leading idea that runs through Hugo's life activities and creation is humanitarianism-opposing violence and controlling "evil" with love.
Hugo experienced almost all the major events in France in the19th century. He wrote many poems, novels, plays, various essays, literary comments and political articles in his life, and was an influential figure in France.
Hugo's creative process lasted for more than 60 years, and his works were of equal length, including 26 volumes of poems, 20 volumes of novels, 79 volumes of scripts 12 and 2 1 volumes of philosophical works, which added a brilliant cultural heritage to the treasure house of French literature and human culture. His representative works include: Notre Dame de Paris, Les Miserables, Marine Labors, Smiling Man 93, and Poetry Collection Light and Shadow.