As an integral part of Chinese traditional culture, Chinese traditional folklore is conceived, produced and inherited under the constraints of the unique natural environment, economic methods, social structure, political system and other factors of the Chinese nation. Therefore, China Traditional folk customs not only have the uniqueness of human folk customs, but also have unique characteristics that are different from other countries and nations. Analyzing and revealing the basic characteristics of Chinese traditional folk customs is a necessary step in the study of folk culture. Its description and description of various specific events should be two complementary and indispensable aspects for in-depth study of Chinese folk customs. Unfortunately, comprehensive discourse has been relatively quiet in recent years. This article is intended to draw people's attention to this aspect of research. A comprehensive inspection of the inheritance and evolution of Chinese folk customs reveals that the following characteristics are very obvious.
1. The long-term preservation of primitive beliefs
The long-term inheritance and popularity of primitive beliefs and customs over thousands of years of historical development is a major feature of Chinese traditional folk customs. Customs such as nature worship, animal and plant worship, totem worship, ancestor worship, witchcraft, divination, prayers, sacrifices, taboos, etc. are not only concentrated in people's religious activities, but also permeate all aspects of people's material and spiritual lives. . We don’t need to spend pen and ink describing the various and complicated witchcraft and sacrificial rituals. Just looking at the beliefs and customs that permeate people’s daily lives is enough to illustrate this problem. For example, in material production activities, spring prayers, autumn reports, praying for rain, warding off disasters, using divination to predict climate and annual growth, and forming a series of taboos around farming have long been traditional customs in agricultural production. "Zuo Zhuan" records: "The two sacrifices to Sheji have been made since Xia Dynasty." [1] "Hanshu Jiao Si Zhi" also records: "The sacrifice of Sheji in the suburbs has always been done." [2] It can be seen that the land is respected. Sacrifices to gods and grain gods have been popular since unknown ancient times. Since then, the entire process of agricultural production has always been accompanied by a series of beliefs and customs. According to the "Book of Rites·Monthly Order", there are "praying for grain" in ten months of the year except November and December. , "Mingminshe", "Pray for the Coming New Year" and other fixed activities to worship agricultural gods. In fact, many agricultural festivals were formed from this. This kind of agricultural belief and custom has been said to have endured in later generations, and it is far from extinct today. As far as hunting, animal husbandry, fishing, forestry, traffic, transportation, trade and other industries and various handicrafts are concerned, it is also important to hold certain witchcraft rituals, worship relevant gods, and abide by
certain taboos. Very common phenomenon.
Primitive beliefs and customs are often reflected in food, clothing, housing and transportation. For example, building a house and a tomb are closely connected with the art of Kanyu. Asking Mr. Yin and Yang to look at Feng Shui to select a home site is the first step before starting the construction. From breaking ground and starting construction to completing the house and moving into the house, auspicious days and good times must be selected for every important step. The whole process involves a series of witchcraft, sacrifices, and taboo activities. Among them, the beam-raising ceremony is particularly grand. Red paper banners such as "Shang-Liang Daji" and "Jiang Taigong is here" are posted on the beams. When craftsmen ascend the beam, they sing "Shang-Liang Wen" and then put steamed buns and loose money on the beams. It is thrown down to drive away evil spirits and suppress ghosts; sometimes a bronze mirror is hung under the eaves to illuminate evil spirits. All these are not mentioned in detail. We can learn from the "divination" records in the oracle bone inscriptions of the Yin Ruins, the two chapters "Zhao Gao" and "Luo Gao" in "Shangshu" describe the tortoise divination process when King Zhou Cheng chose Luoyi as the capital, and the "Residence Building Document" preserved in Dunhuang documents. [3], "Zhenzhaiwen", [4] and the endless Feng Shui books of later generations, it can be seen that the original belief in construction activities has a long history and is continuous.
According to etiquette regulations, Chinese traditional clothing must be compatible with certain religious activities, so there are so-called "sacrificial clothing". In addition, there are many popular clothes and accessories used to ward off evil spirits, such as five-poison vests, spiced bags, evil-proof shoes, jade pendants, amulets, etc. In dietary life, boatmen avoid turning over when eating fish and call it "chopsticks" instead of "chopsticks"; Henan people avoid saying "less", "no", "light", "rotten", "finished" and "not enough" when cooking. and other words; Northeastern people should not fold the dumplings without pinching them, because pinching the bare edges looks like a "monk's head", which is unlucky, and the dumplings should not be placed in a circle. They must be placed horizontally and vertically in a row to make money. These taboo customs are We often hear the common ones. In fact, primitive beliefs in food have been popular for a long time. For example, in the Han Dynasty, there was a saying: "Thunder cannot make sauce. Thunder has already sounded and made sauce, which makes people thunder in the belly." "Common saying: Eat a toad in La Zhengdan Those who are named are lucky, and they are rewarded with cold wine. Those who are lucky are good, and it is auspicious." [5]
According to the record in "The Classic of Mountains and Seas": "The Mountain of Swaggering... has trees. Its shape is like a valley and has black texture. Its flowers are shining in all directions. Its name is Mi＠①gǔ. If you wear it, you will not be confused. There are animals, and its shape is Like Yu, it has white ears, and it is called a gorilla (orangutan). It eats well and walks well. "On the mountain of Twisted Yang... there is a beast. Its shape is like a horse with a white head, and its text is like a tiger." Red tail, its sound is like a ballad, its name is Lu Shu, it is suitable for descendants to wear it. ""Zheshan... there is a fish, its shape is like a cow, it lives in a mausoleum, its tail has wings, its feathers are under @③, its sound is like. The name of the cow is ＠④. It dies in winter and grows in summer. It eats it without swelling or disease." [6] This is the concept that eating or wearing something can achieve some practical effect. The idea of ????simulating witchcraft, and the popular saying in later generations that what you eat is what you eat, such as "eating the heart of a bear and the gall of a leopard" to describe the boldness of others, is obviously in the same vein. As for the custom of drinking traditional Chinese medicine and pouring the residue on the road, it is obviously related to contact with witchcraft.
When encountering family or social activities such as travel and gatherings, people often use divination, dream interpretation, fortune-seeking, fortune-telling, etc. to predict good or bad luck and decide their actions. It is recorded in "Mozi": "Zimozi was in the north of Qi, and met the sun. The sun said: 'The emperor has killed the black dragon in the north today, and the master's color is black, so he cannot go north.' Zimozi did not listen. Then it went north to Zishui, but it failed and turned around."[7] This is an example of Cong Chen's prediction of good or bad luck in travel. Among the people, even washing hair and making clothes have various customs of seeking good luck and avoiding bad luck. As recorded in "Lunheng": "The Book of Mu says: If you bathe on a child's day, you will love it; if you bathe on a Mao day, you will grow old. ... There are books on tailoring, and the books have good and bad luck, and on unfavorable days, making clothes will bring disaster. , auspicious days bring good fortune.” [8] In addition, various omen superstitions are also prevalent among the people. "The ancients said: There is no morning for a hen, but the morning when the chicken turns into a chicken is the rope of the family." The record shows that as early as before the Zhou Dynasty, people had firmly believed that the hen announcing the morning was a family tradition. A precursor to decline. There are also many records in "Zuo Zhuan" about solar eclipses portending disasters. There are many superstitious omens recorded in the "Shan Hai Jing", such as "On the mountain of Changyou... there is a beast, its shape is like a tree with four ears, its name is Changyou, and its sound is like chanting. When it is seen, there will be floods in the county." [9] "There is a beast in Yanshan Mountain. Its shape is like a pig with a human face, a yellow body and a red tail. Its name is Hexiao, and its voice is like a baby. ... When you see it, the world will flood." [10] It was passed down to later generations. , superstitions about omens that are popular in various places, such as "the crow cries out evil and the magpie cries good luck", "the owl cries out filial piety", "the left eye jumps for good luck and the right eye jumps for misfortune", "the chicken in the house means bad luck", "sneezing means disaster" , "Lights and flowers herald happiness", etc. are all familiar to us.
In civil society life, worshiping ancestors and protecting gods of village communities has always been an important matter for families and villages. When socializing, it is also a common practice for people to restrain each other and gain trust by using certain belief rituals or swearings during social interactions. Frequently used method. In life rituals, primitive beliefs penetrate particularly deeply. For example, around childbirth, there are all kinds of reproductive worship, customs of praying for the birth of a child, taboos for mothers and delivery rooms, and a series of rituals to pray for babies. There are also many witchcraft activities during weddings. Throwing grains and beans to fight off the three evil spirits has been popular at least since the Western Han Dynasty[11]. Using bows and arrows to suppress evil spirits, hanging bronze mirrors to drive away worshipers, etc. have been recorded in Tang and Song Dynasty literature[12] ]. Funerals are associated with the concept of ghosts and ancestor worship, and religious activities are even more complex and have many names. From the top cave people sprinkling hematite powder on the corpses to the relevant records in "Etiquette·Funeral Ceremonies", various funeral beliefs and customs have continued to develop and evolve over a long period of time.
Looking at China’s traditional festivals, most of them originated from ancient sacrifices. Although many festivals have evolved in later generations, they have either been integrated into comprehensive festivals with multiple contents or have undergone qualitative changes. The content of the sacrifices is still more or less retained, such as the beginning of spring, the beginning of summer, the beginning of autumn, and the beginning of winter. In addition to various agricultural festival customs, the Qingdi Jumang, the Red Emperor Zhurong, the White Emperor Liaoshou, and the Black Emperor must be sacrificed respectively. Emperor Xuanming; on the Ghost Festival, Winter Solstice, and New Year's Eve, there are rituals to worship ancestors.
Primitive beliefs and customs have always shown a strong mystery in their inheritance. People feel that these customs are elusive and unexplainable. The fear and awe generated in the mysterious atmosphere lead to blindness. Folk customs of obedience. This is in stark contrast to the folk customs of many other countries and nations in the world, which are deeply influenced by religion.
There are multiple reasons for the long-term continuation of primitive beliefs and customs in China.
First, Chinese traditional culture was nurtured and developed in a relatively closed geographical environment. Over the course of thousands of years of history, it has always been inherited without interruption.
This continuous cultural system determines that the transmission channel of Chinese folk culture is unimpeded, and the relatively conservative cultural character caused by factors such as the geographical environment makes the ancient customs not easily changed during the inheritance. Therefore, the original beliefs as the main body of original folk customs can be largely preserved and passed on for a long time in later generations.
Secondly, the Chinese culture that emerged from the agricultural economy and patriarchal society is characterized by a pragmatic spirit and an emphasis on real life and worldly relationships. Therefore, the original belief has never developed into a universal belief. religion. For example, Taoism, which is native to China, has not only failed to become the dominant "state religion", but it itself is infiltrated with ancient witchcraft and sacrificial elements. As for some foreign religions, such as Buddhism, they can only survive under the constraints of China's specific social and cultural conditions and cannot replace the original beliefs and customs.
Thirdly, China is a multi-ethnic country, and the historical development of each ethnic group is uneven. When the Han areas have entered feudal society, many ethnic minorities are still in the clan tribal system or more primitive social stages. , so primitive beliefs and customs exist in large numbers among various ethnic minorities. When certain ethnic minorities took over the Central Plains or established political power in the Central Plains, they would inevitably bring many primitive beliefs and customs. For example, the establishment of the Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Qing regimes brought about the custom of shaman dance among the northern ethnic groups.
This characteristic of Chinese traditional folklore reminds us that we must take into account the multifaceted influence of primitive beliefs in our research. Even when studying foreign religions, we should also pay attention to the conflicts and integration of foreign religions and local primitive beliefs. of many changes.
2. The patriarchal concept has far-reaching influence
As many scholars have pointed out, the patriarchal patriarchal system based on the agricultural economy is the basis of traditional Chinese culture. social structure. In the long historical process, although Chinese society has undergone various changes, the patriarchal system and its remnants and variants maintained by blood ties have been preserved for a long time. This social structure characterized by patriarchal clan has had a long-term and significant impact on folk customs.
From the perspective of traditional social psychology, people attach great importance to blood relationships, which clearly reflects the influence of patriarchal concepts. Scholars who study folklore have noticed that China's kinship appellation system is very complicated and sophisticated. Like other countries and ethnic groups, it not only distinguishes upper and lower generations vertically, but also has extremely horizontal differences in terms of parental lineage, direct descendants, elders and younger ones, etc. Strict and nuanced rules. For example, the male elders of my previous generation include uncles, uncles, uncles, uncles, etc., and the female elders include aunts, aunts, uncles, uncles, aunts, etc. This troublesome way of addressing people is actually derived from the patriarchal society that emphasizes blood affinity and affiliation. In social life, the rights and obligations of family members, relationships between each other, inheritance and distribution of property, etc. are determined by the blood relationship expressed by the title and the different statuses of superiority and inferiority, male and female, elder and younger established thereby. Scheduled. Confucius emphasized the "rectification of names" and required people to strictly abide by the hierarchical order of "lord, minister, father, son, son". This is the purpose.
From the perspective of traditional Chinese social life, various folk activities of kinship groups and even village communities mostly revolve around the axis of blood relations. People have talked a lot about this aspect, so we might as well look at it from another aspect. A noteworthy phenomenon since the Tang and Song Dynasties is that with the many changes in social and cultural conditions and the continuous expansion of social activities, some people have broken through the boundaries of their families and villages and interacted with each other based on their beliefs, expertise, interests and special needs. , regrouped and formed some new activity groups. For example, there are many records of such folk associations and gatherings outside of families and villages in the literature of the Song Dynasty [13]. It should be said that these social interactions and civil organizations that are independent of the family reflect a new type of interpersonal relationships, but people still believe in the power of blood. Friends with different surnames often form "righteous brothers" through "sworn sworn ties". Hong Mai of the Song Dynasty once talked about this phenomenon: "Those who come from the outside and are not righteous are called righteousness, and righteous fathers, righteous sons, righteous brothers, and righteous brothers" "[14] Many dramas and novels of the Yuan and Ming dynasties have descriptions of "sworn friendships" between friends. For example, "Single Sword Club" and "The Romance of the Three Kingdoms" have a perfunctory paragraph based on the historical events of Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei. The story of "Three Brothers in Taoyuan" became a model for "brothers with different surnames" in later generations. In the old days, there were "Ten Brothers" composed of men who sworn sworn brothers in Zhejiang, and there was the "Jinlan Society" composed of women sworn sworn brothers in Guangzhou.
Folk guilds in the Ming and Qing dynasties often imitated family forms and formed alliances to join the guild. Masters and apprentices referred to each other as father and son, and all disciples referred to each other as brothers. The above phenomenon shows that people always believe that transforming non-blood relationships into symbolic blood relationships through certain rituals can produce strong binding force and cohesion. This is evident from the fact that people attach great importance to blood relationships.
Another major manifestation of the social psychology influenced by patriarchal concepts is that for thousands of years, the emotion of "filial piety" has always occupied a supreme position in social concepts. A major thing that people often do repeatedly is to solemnly pay homage and worship to their deceased ancestors, in order to pray to their ancestors to bless future generations and prosperous families. People believe that other gods are not as noble as ancestor gods, so ancestral halls and family temples are built everywhere, and every family worships ancestor tablets. Regular ancestor worship ceremonies are the most important folk belief activities. In traditional Chinese society, if a person does not worship his ancestors, there is no place for him. Another manifestation of "filial piety" is absolute obedience and filial piety to living elders. In people's minds, "filial piety" is the core and matrix of all moral norms. Just as it is said in "The Classic of Filial Piety", "The husband's filial piety is the scripture of heaven, the righteousness of the earth, and the behavior of the people." It starts with serving relatives, ends with serving the king, and finally establishes one’s character.” [15] Therefore, “filial piety comes first” has become a recognized norm in society, while people who “have no father and no children” and “do not recognize their six relatives” are despised by everyone. .
Respecting ancestors and filial piety also leads to a common psychological stereotype, that is, extreme respect for tradition, and thus forms an ideological tendency of respecting the past and disregarding the present, and sticking to the past. People always treat the ancient traditional customs with caution and do not dare to abandon them easily. When evaluating things, they always put forward some opinions based on whether they conform to the "ancient law" and whether they have been passed down properly. When speaking, you should always quote the words of the ancients and predecessors to strengthen the weight of your words. Proverbs and sayings that have been circulated for a long time among the people are often powerful magic weapons when admonishing others. There are three hundred and sixty folk businesses, each of which has its own "ancestor" that it believes in. They all pay attention to "family methods" and "teacher inheritance", and there are magical legends about the "ancestor" starting a business and teaching skills. If the carpenter does not flaunt his "unique skills passed down from his master" and the doctor does not show off his "secret recipe passed down from his ancestors", it will be difficult to win the trust of others.
The influence of the patriarchal system and patriarchal concepts is also reflected in all aspects of people's material and social lives through the form of ritual systems. Historically, the hierarchical etiquette system not only took the norms of "Three Cardinal Guidelines and Five Constant Virtues" as the connotation of morality, but also took the hierarchical distribution of consumer goods as its substantive content. All dynasties in the past dynasties used etiquette to regulate social order. People lived according to their hierarchical status, rather than the amount of property, in order to protect the insurmountable moral creed of superiority and inferiority. Judging from the use of daily necessities, rituals have made detailed and complete regulations, such as clothing, house furniture, carriages and horses, daily miscellaneous items, etc., regardless of size, their type, shape, material, style, color etc., all have strict grade differences, even as small as the number of doornails and the decoration of the belt, all have certain specifications, and the high and the low cannot be confused. In social life, there are also a series of etiquette regulations for interpersonal relationships, social interactions, weddings and funerals, good and bad luck, etc. Rulers in the past dynasties often acted to "correct etiquette and customs", using legal, philosophical, educational and other means to bring folk customs into the orbit of the etiquette system. Under the constraints of the etiquette system, people cannot go beyond their own status to enjoy items they should not enjoy, and do things that are not in line with etiquette. This has shaped the national character of following etiquette and rules, and forming a nation of being restrained, conservative, frugal, and simple. folk customs.