Taoism is a traditional religion that originated in ancient China. Its influence in ancient China was second only to Buddhism. In traditional Chinese culture, Taoism is considered to be various theoretical doctrines and practical methods together with Confucianism and Buddhism.
The names of Taoism were different in the early days of its formation. Many scholars in the pre-Qin period used "Tao" to refer to their theories and methods. Confucianism, Mohism, Taoism, Yin-Yangism, and even Buddhism all once claimed to be or were considered "Taoism" for various reasons. Confucianism was the first to use the word "Taoism", referring to the ways of the ancient kings and the theories of Confucius as "Taoism". When Buddhism was first introduced to China, "Bodhi" was translated as "Tao", so it was also called "Taoism". At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Five Dou Mi Dao appeared and called itself "Taoism", which means "teaching with good Taoism". Since then, in order to distinguish themselves, other schools no longer call themselves "Taoism", but have become the specific name of Wu Dou Mi Tao.
What we call Taoism now refers to the Taoism that is based on ancient Chinese religious beliefs and inherits some religious concepts and practice methods such as Fangxian Taoism and Huanglao Taoism, and gradually forms "Tao" as the highest belief. It is a religion that regards Laozi as its leader, takes Laozi's "Tao Te Ching" as its main classic, and pursues cultivation to become an immortal. The main methods of Taoism to become an immortal or a god can be roughly summarized into five types. elixirs, etc.), qi refining and guidance, inner alchemy cultivation, magic rituals, merit and deeds to become gods. Most of the common acquired gods are those who practice inner alchemy and achieve deity through merit.
Catechism and Doctrine
Since its inception, Taoism has taken Laozi's "Tao Te Ching" as its fundamental classic, and "Tao" and "De" in it as its basic beliefs. Taoism believes that "Tao" is the origin and master of all things in the universe, omnipresent and all-encompassing, and that all things evolve from "Tao". "De" is the embodiment of "Tao". The Sanqingzunshen is the initial personified manifestation of "Tao", and also represents the three important processes of the creation of the universe (Tao produces one, one life produces two, two produces three, and three produces all things - Tao Te Ching). The Three Purities give birth to heaven and earth. The gods of the universe and nature, these are called the innate gods (Tianzun), are the evolution of Tao. Since the innate is integrated with the Tao body, and the Tao law is far-reaching and fills the boundless universe, so Taoists often say "Infinite Tianzun" "Human beings can achieve the state of unity with Tao through certain methods. These people are called acquired gods, and those with the highest level of cultivation can also reach the level of deity."
Taoism takes Taishang Laojun (that is, the moral god) as the leader, which is Laozi. In addition, there are other statements about the supreme god of Taoism in Taoist scriptures of different sects in history. One is that Yuqing Yuanshi Tianzun is the highest god, the other is that Qinglingbao Tianzun is the highest god, and the third is Taiqing Daode Tianzun is the highest god. , and finally evolved into the theological theory of the Trinity.
Taoism advocates rebirth, hates death, pursues immortality, and believes that people can make their own decisions about their own lives instead of having to obey the orders of God. It is believed that as long as people are good at practicing Taoism and maintaining good health, they can live forever and become immortals. Therefore, many cultivation methods have been produced: refining alchemy, taking food, breathing in and out, fetal breath, massage, guidance, room, bigu, thinking, taking talismans and chanting sutras.
Taoist theology can be said to be a religious doctrine that is a mystification of Taoist thought. It may not be completely consistent, but the similarities and differences are worth pondering. However, Taoism has its ancestors named Lao and Zhuang, and respects many Taoist classics such as the Tao Te Ching (Lao Tzu) and the Nan Hua Jing (Zhuang Tzu). After all, it has absorbed and inherited a large amount of Taoist thought. In addition, it is also influenced by the "Book of Changes" and the Yin-Yang School, Confucianism, Buddhism and ancient Fangxian Taoism.
History
Origins
Although Taoism regards Laozi as its founder, its ideas are not completely consistent with the thoughts of Laozi and Zhuangzi, but more benefit from them. In the early Han Dynasty, Huang-Lao Taoism, which relied on Laozi's famous sayings to cultivate Taoism and maintain longevity, was popular. Another origin of Taoism is Fangxian Taoism, which began in the Warring States and flourished in the Qin and Han Dynasties. In addition, we can also trace the worship of ghosts and gods in the Yin and Shang Dynasties.
In the process of its gradual formation, the interaction between Taoism and Buddhism which was entering China at that time (the influence of Buddhism on Taoism and the influence of Taoism on the Sinicization of Buddhism) is also worth noting.
Development process
The development of Taoism is generally divided into four periods: the origin period of the Han, Wei and Jin Dynasties, the prosperity of the Tang and Song Dynasties, the emergence of Quanzhen religion during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, and the decline after the Qing Dynasty.
The formation of Taoism is a slow development process. As two landmark events in the final formation of Taoism, one is the spread of the Taiping Jing and the other is Zhang Daoling's Five Dou Rice Road.
During the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty (126-144), the "Taiping Qingling Shu" (later known as the "Taiping Jing") passed down by Yu Ji and Gong Chong was published and was widely disseminated. By the time of Emperor Ling of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Jiao was preaching according to the "Book of Taiping Qingling", which was called Taiping Dao. He claimed to be a great sage and a good teacher. His followers were spread all over the world, and he was already quite influential. Later, the Yellow Turban Uprising failed, and Taiping Road declined day by day. Also during the reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Ling studied Taoism at Huming Mountain in Shu County and recruited disciples to teach. Those who believed in the Taoism gave five buckets of rice, so it was called the Five Bucks of Rice Tao. His grandson Zhang Lubao had been in Hanzhong for many years, and later cooperated with the highest ruling authorities, causing the influence of the Five Dou Rice Road to spread throughout the country from the southwest corner, and it became the authentic Taoism.
During the Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, with the popularity of alchemy and the deepening of related theories, Taoism achieved great development. At the same time, Taoism also absorbed the popular metaphysics at that time and enriched its own theories. In the first year of Jianwu in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Ge Hong systematically discussed the theories of immortals since the Warring States Period and wrote "Baopuzi", which was the first systematization of Taoist theory and enriched the ideological content of Taoism. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, Kou Qianzhi established the "Northern Master's Way" with the support of Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty, and Lu Xiujing established the "Southern Heavenly Master's Way".
In the Tang and Song Dynasties, Li Yuan, the emperor of the Tang Dynasty, recognized Laozi Li Er as his ancestor. Zhenzong and Huizong of the Song Dynasty also believed in Taoism. Taoism was therefore highly respected and became the state religion. At this time, sects such as Maoshan and Gezao appeared, and Tianshi Tao also re-emerged. In terms of theory, the inner alchemy theory expounded by Chen Tuan, Zhang Boduan and others is extremely popular.
At this stage, Taoism not only developed within China, but also spread to other parts of Asia through migration and cultural exchanges. For example, at the end of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, after Wu Dou Mi Dao failed to launch an uprising in southern China, Lu Xun led his troops to flee to Jiaozhou, Vietnam. Vietnamese Li Tuo helped Lu Xun attack Jiaozhou Fucheng, but committed suicide after failure. This is the earliest record of Taoism being introduced into Vietnam. In addition, such as Korea's Cheontoism that incorporates the myth of Danjun, or Japan's Shintoism that incorporates the Sunshine God, worships the emperor's thoughts, and worships gods. However, except for Vietnamese Taoism which still retains its Taoist essence, Korean Cheondoism or Japanese Shintoism are quite different from Taoism in terms of their religious content.
During the Jin Dynasty, the Quanzhen Taoism founded by Wang Chongyang appeared in the north. Later, Qiu Chuji, a disciple of Wang Chongyang, preached to Genghis Khan of Mongolia and was highly trusted. He was granted the power to take charge of Taoism in the world by the rulers of the Yuan Dynasty. At the same time, in response to the rapid rise of Quanzhen Taoism, the original Longhushan Tianshi Taoism, the Maoshan Qing sect, and the Gezaoshan Lingbao sect merged into the Zhengyi sect, with Zhang Tianshi as the leader of the Zhengyi sect, thus formally forming the Taoist Beiyou sect. There are two major factions, Quanzhen and Nanyouzheng.
In the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle Zhu Di claimed to be the incarnation of Emperor Zhenwu, and strongly supported Zhang Sanfeng and his Wudang sect who worshiped Zhenwu. At this time, Taoism still occupied a dominant position among various religions in China.
Since the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu rulers believed in Tibetan Buddhism and suppressed Taoism, which was mainly believed by the Han people. Taoism has since declined.
Taoism in Modern Times
After the Ming and Qing Dynasties, Taoism basically stopped developing. After entering modern society, Taoism declined even more. After the founding of the People's Republic of China and the implementation of the Chinese government's new religious policies, some previous Taoist rules and precepts were invalidated because they conflicted with existing laws. In 1957, the Chinese Taoist Association was established to manage the internal affairs of Chinese Taoism. By the time of the Cultural Revolution, Taoism, like other religions in China, had experienced a catastrophe. It was not until the end of the Cultural Revolution that Taoism began to resume normal religious activities, but the number of people who believed in Taoism was not widespread.
Taoist Gods
Taoism is a polytheistic religion. The highest god is the Three Pure Gods derived from Tao, namely Yuanshi Tianzun, Lingbao Tianzun and Daode Tianzun. Among them, Daode Tianzun is Taishang Laojun. In addition, Taoism developed the Heavenly Court, the Jade Emperor and a series of officials according to the order of the human world. It absorbed the Buddhist concepts of hell and the sea world. As a subsidiary of the Heavenly Court, it also developed a series of immortal officials in the Yama Hall and the Crystal Palace. In addition, Local deities series such as the four-level meritorious service, the mountain god, the city god, the land, the kitchen god, etc. It also absorbed many of the Queen Mother of the West and the Eight Immortals from ancient Chinese mythology as "loose immortals" outside the order of heaven. Therefore, there are many gods in Taoism, and any gods created by local people and celebrities they worship, such as Mazu, Guandi, etc., can be incorporated into the Taoist immortal system at any time. However, generally temples only enshrine the statues of the Sanqing gods, and other gods can build their own temples.
In addition, Taoism believes that the human body is also a small world, so various organs of the human body, such as hair, facial features, etc., are also guarded by gods, and there are corresponding methods of practice.
Precepts
Taoist precepts are some rules that restrict the thoughts, words and deeds of Taoist priests. Taoist precepts have different contents according to different sects. Generally speaking, the Quanzhen sect's discipline is stricter than that of the Fulu sect. The main content of the precepts is not to kill, not to drink alcohol or eat meat, not to steal, not to engage in sexual misconduct, etc. The precepts must be observed by believers, and a Taoist priest must have an ordination ceremony to be counted as a believer. According to the strictness of the rules, the precepts can be divided into high-grade precepts, medium-grade precepts, and low-grade precepts. According to the number of rhythms, there are "three precepts", "five precepts", "eight precepts", "ten precepts", "Laojun's twenty-seven precepts", etc.
In addition to the precepts, there are also Taoist rules, which are the punishment methods for Taoist priests after breaking the precepts. The specific regulations vary from faction to faction.
Taoist precepts have formed a unique set of content on the basis of absorbing some content from Buddhism and the requirements of Confucianism’s Three Cardinal Guidelines and Five Constant Rules. Taoist rules and precepts also change with changes in circumstances. When they conflict with the laws of the political power, appropriate adjustments will be made.
Taoism
Taoist religious activities are very complex and are mainly divided into two categories: Taoist priests’ own practice (called Taoism) and Taoist rituals, which include Taoist scriptures, confessions, Dharma, fasting, rituals, spells, forbidden spells, seclusion, riding on a horse, exorcism, subduing demons, subduing demons, eliminating disasters, praying for blessings, house magic, immortal magic, bigu, Feng Shui, divination, etc.
The Taoist priest's own practice becomes Taoism, including inner elixir, outer elixir, food intake, sexual intercourse, etc. Waidan refers to the smelting of cinnabar, lead, mercury and other minerals and medicines to make elixirs that can make people immortal. Modern science believes that most of these elixirs are poisonous, and there are many examples of people in ancient times who died after taking them. Therefore, later Taoism also realized that because it is difficult to control the method of taking and preparing elixirs, they are dangerous to a certain extent. Therefore, later generations turned to safer Inner elixir cultivation. Waidan is also considered a pioneer of modern chemistry.
Inner elixir means to achieve immortality by refining elixir in the body through qi movement, guidance, breathing and exhalation. The terminology of outer elixir and inner elixir are the same, but they refer to completely different meanings. For example, the human body is compared to a furnace for burning elixirs, but they are still theoretically similar. In ancient times, the teaching of alchemy was mostly passed down from master to disciple, and was taught orally, making it difficult for outsiders to understand.
In addition, Taoism also has many Taoist techniques. For example, there are many types of vipassana, keeping quiet, pondering, inediate and so on. These modern practices are mostly classified as Qigong. In addition, many Taoists of Quanzhen Tao practice martial arts. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine also originates from Taoism.
Taoist rituals are collectively called "Zhai Jiao Ritual". Zhai means cleanliness, and Jiao means prayer, also known as the Taoist temple. Taoism worships immortals. Since the immortals are believed to be pure and pure, they need to bathe and change clothes before offering sacrifices, abstain from drinking alcohol and eating meat, and fast. Performing sacrificial activities is called "Jiao". Taoism has absorbed many Buddhist contents during its development and has many names. Taoism believes that through these rituals, disasters can be eliminated and blessings can be obtained. Divination is also a part of Taoism, including divination, drawing lots, character testing, etc. In addition, Taoism is very distinctive in the use of talismans and urns. Talismans are symbols drawn on yellow paper with cinnabar. Taoism believes that they can be used to cure diseases, while urn is believed to be able to drive the gods. In addition, Taoism believes that chanting forbidden mantras can cure diseases, drive away ghosts and gods, and drive away wild animals. These are mainly the spells of Zhengdao.
Main Classics
Taoism regards Laozi's "Tao Te Ching" and Zhuangzi's "Nanhua Sutra" as the two most important classics. In addition, Taoism imitated the Buddhist Tripitaka and created the Taoist Canon, which collects Taoist works from past dynasties, including not only philosophy and Taoist theory, but also works on alchemy, health preservation, disease treatment, qigong and other aspects. The main ones include "Zhengtong Dao Zang", "Tao Zang Ji Yao", "Wanli Continuing Dao Zang", etc. Currently, only the "Zhengtong Dao Zang" from the Ming Dynasty has been circulated, and other versions have been lost. Most of the existing Taoist classics of the past dynasties are collected here. The number of Taoist scriptures is very large, and the main classics of each sect are also different.
"The Book of Changes Shen Tongqi" is the earliest Alchemy Classic and is called the ancestor of the Alchemy Classic. In addition, "Baopuzi" is also the basic classic of the Alchemy School of Taoism. "The Taiping Jing" and "Laozi Xiang'er Commentary" are also the main classics of early Taoism. "Huangting Jing" and "Shangqing Dadong Zhenjing" are the main classics of the Shangqing Jinglu School, and the Maoshan School also attaches great importance to them. "The Book of Saviors" and "The Three Emperors" are the main classics of the Lingbao sect and the Three Emperors sect.
The Yin Fu Jing and the Chang Qing Jing Jing are also two very important Taoist scriptures that Taoist priests must recite. In addition, "Jade Emperor Sutra" and "Heart Seal Miao Sutra" are also one of the daily lessons for Taoists.
Although the main sect of the southern Taoist sect focuses on talismans, fasting rituals, and scientific rituals, after the Northern Song Dynasty, it also advocated three religions and one principle, and practiced inner elixir. 》 and other classics. The Quanzhen sect of the Northern Sect of Taoism advocates the unification of the three religions, refining qi and concentrating the mind, clarifying the mind and seeing nature, and integrating Confucianism. It mainly focuses on the three classics of "Tao De Jing", "Xiao Jing" and "Prajna Heart Sutra", and advocates " Be filial, sincere and pure, honest and simple."
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A Taoist priest on Mount Tai (this picture is not a representation of the Taoist priest’s orthodox clothing. The orthodox Taoist priest’s uniform is not a button-down flag dress, but a cross-collar Han suit)
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In terms of practice methods, Taoism is mainly divided into two sects-Fulu Sect and Danding Sect. The former advocated the use of spells and other methods to cure diseases and expel ghosts, while the latter advocated alchemy and elixirs to seek immortality, and divided them into two channels: outer elixir and inner elixir.
The sects of Taoism are generally believed to have begun in the Song and Yuan Dynasties. There are five major sects that are relatively influential in the history of Taoism:
Zhengyi sect: Below are the Lingbao sect, Zhengyi sect, and Jingming sect
Quanzhen Taoism: There are also Divided into Southern Sect and Northern Sect. There are also many sects, such as Longmen sect, Yuxian sect, Nanwu sect, Suishan sect, Yushan sect, Huashan sect, Qingjing sect, etc.
Zhen Daoism: Founded during the Jin Dynasty and gradually declined after the Yuan Dynasty.
Taiyi Daoyao: Founded during the Jin Dynasty and gradually declined after the end of the Yuan Dynasty.
Jingming Taoism: Founded in the Southern Song Dynasty and declined after the Ming Dynasty
After the Ming Dynasty, Taoism was divided into two major sects: Zhengyi Taoism and Quanzhen Taoism. All other sects were classified into these two sects. under the sect. The Baiyun Temple in Beijing now has the "General Register of All Zhen Sects", which lists 86 Taoist sects, but in fact there are only 80.
Zhengyidao: Zhengyidao is the Five Pecks of Rice Road in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. It was later renamed Tianshi Dao, Zhengyidao. Its Taoist priests can practice at home, do not abstain from eating meat and fish, and can get married and have children. Its Taoist temple is generally called the "Zisun Temple".
Quanzhen Taoism: Quanzhen Taoism flourished in the Jin and Yuan dynasties, and was the largest and most important sect among the new Taoist sects of the Song and Yuan dynasties. Representative figures include Wang Chongyang and Qiu Chuji. Quanzhen Taoism emphasizes pure cultivation, and its Taoist priests must become monks and be vegetarians. Its Taoist temple is generally called the "Ten Directions Jungle".
Taoist Culture
Taoism has a profound influence on ancient Chinese politics, economy, philosophy, literature, art, music, painting, architecture, medicine, pharmacology, health care, qigong, chemistry, and martial arts. , astronomy, and geography have all had varying degrees of impact. In addition, it also has a profound impact on the Chinese way of thinking, ethics, morals, folk customs, ethnic relations, national psychology, national character and other aspects.
Influence on Chinese Culture
Taoism has had varying degrees of influence on all aspects of Chinese culture.
Some sects in Taoism pass down some martial arts and qigong from master to apprentice. For example, the Wudang Sect, which is very famous in martial arts, is said to be the martial arts inherited by many Taoist priests on Wudang Mountain. Taoist martial arts is also different from many martial arts. It emphasizes mellowness, softness and late strikes, which fully embodies the teachings of Taoism. Among them, simple martial arts routines such as Tai Chi have gradually become people's daily fitness activities. Taoist Qigong is also a major school of Chinese Qigong. The practice method of Quanzhen Taoism is basically Qigong. It has made great contributions to the exploration and development of Qigong.
Taoist health-preserving techniques also inherit and develop the meridian science and other aspects of the traditional Chinese medicine "Huangdi Neijing". In addition, many Taoists studied medical skills and made great contributions to the development of traditional Chinese medicine. For example, Ge Hong, Tao Hongjing and others have made great achievements in traditional Chinese medicine.
Taoist alchemy had an important influence on the invention of gunpowder.
Li Bai, the great poet of the Tang Dynasty, was deeply influenced by Taoism. He once traveled around the country, sought immortality and visited Taoism, and even refined elixirs and received Taoist rituals. It can be said that he was a devout Taoist. This experience had a very important impact on his personality, poetry creation and even his life's experiences. Li Bai was called to Chang'an and recommended by many Taoist priests and friends who believed in Taoism, including Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty. In the process of searching for immortals, he traveled all over the Five Mountains, which brought him a lot of materials. Ideas such as "immortal" and "feathering" often appear in his poems.
Although "Journey to the West", one of China's four major classical literary masterpieces, tells the story of four Buddhist monks, including Tang Monk, who went to the West to obtain Buddhist scriptures, the book uses a large number of Taoist-specific concepts such as the Monkey Heart. , Yima, Maiden, Yuanshen, etc., and also built a system of Taoist gods and priests with the Jade Emperor as the core. There are also many Taoist characters and monsters in the book, but most of them are villains.
The most famous novel that is entirely centered on Taoism is "The Romance of the Gods". The essence of the Shang and Zhou wars described in the book is the struggle between the two Taoist factions, Chanjiao and Jiejiao. The various gods and treasures that appear in the book all belong to the Taoist system.
Taoism and Taoism
The terms "Taoism" and "Taoism" are often used indiscriminately. Historically, these two words have referred to many different things and have been conflated; some people still advocate equating the two. However, if we understand Taoism as a philosophical school of thought founded by Laozi and Zhuangzi and reinvented in the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and understand Taoism as a religion that gradually formed in the Han Dynasty and later developed and diverged in several ways, then although Taoism is theoretically It has absorbed a large number of elements of Taoist thought, and even regards Laozi as its leader, but the two cannot be confused, nor can Taoist theory be the same as Taoist thought. As a religion, Taoism has its worship and belief in gods, believers and organizations, and a series of religious rituals and activities. The inheritance of its main sects is roughly clear. As a philosophical school of thought, the evolution of Taoism and its representative figures should be the most important content when it is explained; the inheritance and evolution of Taoism after the Wei and Jin Dynasties still seems vague and difficult to explain, but it has important implications for scholars and literati of all ages. However, its influence is still vaguely discernible; from this perspective, it can also be said that "Taoism" in a narrow sense refers to the philosophical school of thought in the pre-Qin era with Laozi and Zhuangzi as its main representatives.
The similarities and differences between Taoist theology and Taoist thought are indeed difficult to describe in one sentence. Let me give you an example: Lao and Zhuang did not mention Taoism’s so-called immortality and immortality. It cannot be regarded as a reasonable extension of Lao and Zhuang’s thoughts. It can even be said that it is not contrary to the way of nature.
The difference between Taoism and other religions
The ideal world of Taoism is different from the paradise of Buddhism and the paradise of Christianity. There are two ideal worlds in Taoism, one is secular and the other is religious. The secular ideal world is clearly stated in the Taiping Jing. We hope that the world will become a fair and peaceful world without disasters or wars. The ideal world of religion is the "fairyland". Taoism pursues becoming an immortal, so that it can transcend life and death and live the life of an immortal in the fairyland. Different from other religions, Taoism does not believe that people can reach the fairyland after death. Instead, they believe that the human body can live forever through some forms of exercise. After becoming an immortal, you can also live in the world of ordinary people and become a "living spirit". "Fairy", you can also live in a fairyland. However, because it is not easy to achieve the state of immortality, methods such as "dismemberment" appeared later. Moreover, most of the fairyland mentioned are in reality. For example, many of the so-called "Dongtian Paradise" are some beautiful places in China.
Most religious teachings believe that life is full of misfortunes or sins, and that the soul can only be saved after death. However, Taoism believes that living in the world is a beautiful thing, and death is painful. Therefore, Taoism pursues immortality. Therefore, many health-preserving methods, such as Qigong, have been promoted in Taoism.