Aristotle, a famous thinker, politician and philosopher in ancient Greece, wrote Politics, which is divided into eight parts, mainly involving the purpose, origin, change and preservation of polis. Classification, change and preservation of the system; Ideal city-state and its construction; Finally, civic education and youth education are discussed. In addition, this book also deals with the quality of leaders and leadership art; He also expounded his legal thoughts and judicial thoughts.
The first part of this book mainly discusses the origin of polis.
Aristotle believes that people want to establish a * * * isomorphism for a good purpose. Families are made up of men and women, as well as masters and slaves. People form families to meet the needs of daily life. A village is formed when many families unite to obtain things other than the necessities of life. With the constant pursuit of beauty, many villages are completely combined into a * * * isomorphism in order to live a better life. This * * * isomorphism is getting bigger and bigger, until it is big enough to be self-sufficient or close to self-sufficient, the polis is produced.
The second part discusses the relationship between regime and law.
He believes that the essence of polis lies in diversity, not in consistency. The city-state with consistency as its essence and foundation is bound to self-denial and destruction. A highly consistent city-state means that people have lost two virtues: first, men's lust for women; The second is the virtue of giving property generously.
When talking about the relationship between law and city-state, he thinks that a good city-state should not only realize the balance and moderation of property through law, but also devote itself to the equality and balance of people in other aspects, such as education and reputation. In addition, he believes that the stability of the law should be maintained, because the change of the law may cause political turmoil-because the implementation and effect of the law ultimately depend on people's habits rather than the content of the law, and it takes a long time to develop the habits, and frequent legal changes will reduce the prestige of the law.
Besides, he also analyzed the regimes of Hippocrates, Sparta and Carthage, and put forward his own views on these regimes.
The third part discusses citizens, regime theory and legal issues.
He put forward the concept of citizen after analyzing and criticizing various definitions of "citizen". He believes that citizens are people who participate in court trials and administrative rule. Among them, those who participate in administrative adjudication include officials, jurors and members of the citizens' assembly. He also said that people are born political animals. People's pursuit of common life is natural and inevitable; People will enjoy the beautiful life they deserve in the same body driven by the same interests. But he also pointed out that citizens are relative, because this concept is related to everyone's vital interests, and people's judgments on issues involving their own interests are always prone to mistakes.
He also discussed the political system. He believes that the regime is responsible for the establishment or arrangement of various official positions in the city-state, especially the highest official position. In short, the regime is the government. In addition, he also pointed out that the polis is not only to maintain people's lives and share wealth, but also to aim at a better life. He also put forward the classification of government. He believes that there is a correct regime and a changed regime. According to the attribution of interests and supreme power, the correct regime can be divided into monarchy (aiming at public interests, power is in the hands of one person), aristocratic regime (aiming at public interests, power is in the hands of a few people), * * * and regime (aiming at public interests, power is in the hands of most people). The reformed regime is divided into tyrant regime (based on private interests, it is a reformed monarchy), oligarchy regime (based on the interests of the rich, it is a reformed aristocratic regime) and civilian regime (based on the interests of the poor, it is a reformed * * * and regime).
He also discussed legal issues in this part. He believes that law is divided into written law and unwritten law. He believes that the city-state should appoint those who can set an example that is not stipulated by the just law as officials; In addition, the city-state should also revise and supplement new laws according to the new experience of the city-state and citizens over time, so that the rule of law can keep pace with the times and maintain its vigorous vitality. Moreover, he also believes that wherever the rule of law can be applied, it should be implemented as much as possible. If there are no provisions in the law, it must be decided by people, and many people should participate in the decision.
The fourth part first mentions the importance of law again, then analyzes the reasons for the diversity of regimes, and then subdivides the civilian regime, oligarchy regime and aristocratic regime respectively, puts forward the view that "moderate regime" is the best regime, and expounds the three elements of regime.
At the beginning of this part, Aristotle once again emphasized the concept of law. He said that the law was formulated according to the political power, which stipulated and confirmed the contents of many elements of the political power. All authorities must be in power according to law and have the obligation to prevent others from breaking the law; When making laws, legislators must understand the types of government and the differences between these types of government.
Then, he analyzed the reasons of government diversification. He believes that each city-state is composed of different elements and parts, and the structure and distribution of these elements and parts in different city-states are different. Because the polis is made up of different families. The people in the polis have different classes. There are also differences in wealth, origin and virtue among people in the city-state.
Then, he made a more detailed classification of civilian regime, oligarchy regime and aristocratic regime.
Then, he mentioned that "moderate regime" is the best regime. The so-called "moderate regime" is a regime in which the number of the middle class is dominant and the middle class is in power. Because the middle class will neither plunder the wealth of the rich nor deprive the poor of their rights, and will not be contested by parties. He further said that any city-state contains quality and quantity in its construction. Nature refers to freedom, wealth, education and family; Quantity refers to the approved quantity. He further pointed out that in any city-state, no class has both quantitative and qualitative advantages. Therefore, to maintain the stability of a relative regime, its supporters must be stronger than its opponents; When making laws, all classes should consider the interests and demands of the middle class.
At the end of this part, Aristotle expounds the three elements of the regime. He believes that the regime should include three elements: deliberation, administration and justice. The discussion elements are responsible for public affairs such as war and peace, alliance and dissolution, as well as laws, death penalty, official elections and censorship. This institution can be held by all citizens or some citizens. Administrative elements are responsible for the arrangement and allocation of various official positions. Judicial elements mainly refer to the court's trial and other functions; The criteria for distinguishing judicial methods include: members of the court, objects to be tried, ways of appointing members, forms of the court, etc.
The fifth part mainly discusses the change and preservation of political power.
He believes that the reasons for regime change are the same: he was treated unfairly; In order to avoid loss of property and reputation; Suffer from contempt or fear; Some city-states grow disproportionately; Election fraud; Imbalance and war between city-States; The topography, location, etc of the city-state. Then, he discussed in detail the reasons for the changes of civilian regime, oligarchy regime and aristocratic regime respectively.
Next, he discussed the issue of regime preservation. He believes that the way to preserve political power is: let all city-states strictly abide by the law; Prevent hostility and private struggle between the powerful and powerful classes through laws; Clever use of the threats faced by the regime; Prevent anyone from having too much power through laws; Officials are law-abiding and strictly self-disciplined; Through laws, there are more people who are willing and able to maintain the current political power than those who are unwilling and unable to maintain the current political power; Educate citizens and so on. Next, he discussed the preservation of monarchy and oligarchy. He believes that the ways to preserve the autocratic regime are: restraining citizens' thoughts and creating distrust among citizens; Make citizens unable to make changes; The tyrant is not strict but dignified, and those who want to see him respect him; Avoid tyranny; Show citizens that their rule is for the public interest and so on.
At the end of this part, he analyzed the shortcomings of Socrates' thought of regime change.
The sixth part mainly discusses the construction of political system. Before discussing the problem of regime construction, Aristotle explained the principles and characteristics of civilian regime.
He believes that the principle of civilian government is freedom. Freedom here means that people can live as they please, and everyone takes turns to rule and be ruled. In addition, he believes that the characteristics of civilian regime should include the following aspects: officials are elected by all citizens; Officials were chosen by lot; All citizens rule all people, and all people rule all citizens; The official who took office has no property requirements or only very low requirements; A person cannot hold the same position twice; The term of office of officials is very short; All citizens have the right to be tried, and all cases are tried by people elected by citizens; The citizens' assembly has the final say on everything, at least the important things.
He believes that when building a political system, we should focus on the long term. In the composition of the troops, the number and quantity of arms should be determined according to the geographical environment of the city-state. Finally, he focused on the establishment of officials. He believes that officials should include the following types: officials in enterprise management; Officials in charge of urban construction; Officials in charge of rural architecture; Officials in charge of public revenue; Officials responsible for registering contracts and court decisions; Officials responsible for the execution of judicial decisions, fines and supervision of prisoners; An official in charge of public funds; An official in charge of religious affairs; Officials in charge of civic education and so on.
The seventh part mainly discusses the conditions that an ideal city-state should have.
In his view, in an ideal city-state, personal happiness and the happiness of the city-state should be consistent; Reasonable population, superior geographical environment and strong military strength; The people are full of energy and ideas. In addition, the class division should be reasonable; Reasonable polishing position; It makes sense to get married and have children. Finally, pay attention to children's education.
The eighth part mainly discusses the cultivation of teenagers.
In his view, it is the responsibility of the city-state to train young people. The content of education for teenagers should be appropriate and comprehensive. He also advocates training young people through reading and writing, sports, music and painting.
Aristotle's book discusses many aspects, which initiated the study of political science and made it an independent discipline.
However, his thought also has some shortcomings. He believes that people are born unequal. For example, he thinks that some people are born slaves, some are born free, and some are born rulers.
In addition, there are contradictions in his thoughts. When he discussed the principle of civilian government, officials should be elected by all citizens, but later he said that officials should be elected by lottery. Which one is it? We don't know.
Main contents of political chapters:
The first volume is about family.
First of all, briefly discuss the purpose of the polis.
* * * The same body is made for some kind of goodness. The city-state is the noblest and most authoritative, and it contains all other isomorphism.
So the polis pursues the best.
Secondly, it discusses the formation process of the city-state, and draws the conclusion that the formation of the city-state is natural and man is a natural political animal.
First of all, there are inevitable combinations in the world, and once they are separated, they cannot exist. That is to say, men and women must be combined in order to reproduce and continue human beings. Natural rulers and ruled have also established preserved consortia (those who can strategize are naturally suitable to be rulers and masters, and those who can work with their bodies are ruled and born slaves, so their interests are the same). This combination of the two will inevitably form a family first. From this, it can be concluded that families are naturally formed to meet the needs of daily life. Then, through reproduction, a family formed the oldest and most natural form of the village. This also explains why the earliest city-states were ruled by kings. Advanced villages are formed by many families uniting for things other than daily necessities. Finally, when many villages unite for a better life and are large enough to be self-sufficient or almost self-sufficient, a city-state is formed. If the early isomorphic form of * * * is natural, then the polis is also natural, because this is their purpose. The essence of things (nature) is the purpose; What is everything? Only when it is completely generated can we tell the essence of each of them, such as human nature, horse nature and family nature. The ultimate cause and purpose are the best, and self-sufficiency is the purpose and the best. Compared with other animals, man is unique because he has emotions such as good and evil, justice and injustice.
Thirdly, it is further demonstrated that the whole city-state must take precedence over families and individuals. When a person is isolated, he is no longer self-sufficient, just as part is to the whole. Human beings are born with social instinct, and the first person to create a city-state is the one who gives the people the greatest benefit. Wisdom and virtue may be used for people's most evil purposes. Therefore, there must be a city-state full of virtues to regulate people and make them live a better life. Justice is the rule of governance, because the implementation of justice can determine right and wrong, which is the basis of a political order. Fourthly, starting with the basic unit of city-state family management, this paper compares various rules. Family: composed of free men and slaves. These include master-slave relationship, husband-wife relationship (spouse relationship), father-son relationship (blood relationship) and a kind of "getting rich" relationship. Discussion on the master-slave relationship: Firstly, two viewpoints are put forward: 1. How the director manages the domestic slaves means studying, housekeeping and training the domestic slaves. 2. The master's rule over slaves deviates from nature, and the difference between master and slave is determined by laws and regulations, so it is unfair. As an intermediary, money is produced by primitive material exchange. From the beginning of currency circulation, society has developed rich technologies such as commerce and currency lending. Money is not the real wealth needed for life; Different from obtaining necessary limited industries for families, it is unnatural to do business, lend money and collect money indefinitely.
With the technology of production management, after meeting the needs of the family, family management is to arrange these supplies for proper consumption and let the whole family live a proper life. Following the purpose of making a living, families should pay attention to the management of caring for nature, that is, farming and animal husbandry. Making money for money and lending for profit are the worst business activities in society.
The classification of property acquisition methods and its practical research. Several examples of monopoly for profiteering.
On husband and wife, father and son, and the way to govern the family: the relationship between husband and wife is similar to that of politicians governing their freemen, and the relationship between father and son is similar to that of kings governing their subjects.
Domestic management is good at cultivating good morality, and its purpose is to make the whole family achieve good morality. The moral standards of master and slave are different, that is, master is father, husband is slave, wife is wife, and children have their own advantages. Although hard work is irrational, it can sense rationality beyond livestock, and the director should teach slaves with kindness; As for the education of women and children, we will talk about it later.
The second volume discusses the ideal city-state and excellent city-state
Comment on the political ideal in Plato's Republic: people who join political groups must know something. Plato advocated abandoning family and private property, so that all finances and wives were completely owned by the public.
On the education of wife and public: Plato's purpose is to eliminate private and attach importance to public, and strive for the unity of the city-state. However, everything in nature develops due to differentiation; Different molecules in the polis make different contributions, so they can be self-sufficient. An overly unified polis will not be self-sufficient.
Plato's means to achieve this unity is also a fallacy. Human selfishness will not disappear with the abolition of private property system, and more financial disputes will occur between property groups. As for his wife's religion, everyone has become a father and son, with no real relatives. Everyone needs what he wants, and politics and law can't destroy nature after all.
The ideal of wife-husband education will cause various difficulties in the details of practice; Father and son deny each other, and human feelings are as light as water. The crime of paradox is no different from other crimes. Plato's class reform and other procedures are unrealistic.
On the public ownership of property: the management and application of property is not public like private ownership, but joint ownership is appropriate; Private management of property can be carefully managed, and material mutual assistance can cultivate people's charity. The crime caused by finance in the world is rooted in human viciousness; Public property can neither eliminate the viciousness of human nature nor organize the will of the masses. Only through education can we eliminate the viciousness of mankind and unify the polis.
Comment on the political ideal in Plato's law: the ideal city-state proposed here is closer to reality and has a large area. He no longer advocates public ownership of finance and his wife, but there are still some fallacies: the regulations on equal production he drafted ignored various financial quotas and restrictions on population appreciation. He put forward the system of * * * and did not really adjust the elements of the city-state; The election proposed at that time was oligarchy.
Comment on Faria's legal system: the essence of Faria's legal system is to average real estate. To limit population growth, we must first formulate appropriate assets. To make people turn evil into good and safeguard property quotas by law, it is better to improve moral standards through education. Faria's legal system attaches too much importance to material factors.
Comments on Shi Pomao's legal system: Shi Pomao's legal system is still "three", with three levels of people, three levels of land and three levels of statutes. In addition, there are some new laws, such as the reward system. The reward system is bound to promote change. Outdated and invalid laws and regulations should be abolished, but etiquette and law are related, and it is not easy to change them rashly.
On Sparta's political system: people engaged in public affairs need leisure, so slavery guarantees citizens' leisure; Sparta was trained by Heruta, so everyone can take part in public affairs and go to war. Spartan women concentrated their wealth in the hands of a few people. Supervision institute, Presbyterian church, two kings system and dining regulations also have their own shortcomings. Sparta took martial arts as its legislative purpose, and the consequences were bad. Finance is also sleepy.
On Crete-style government: Crete's city-state government is similar to Sparta, but more primitive than Sparta. The dining system is better than Sparta, but the inspection system is poor. Crete ruling group is a narrow multi-party and often fights with each other; However, the island is isolated from the sea, and there have been few foreign invasions since ancient times, so it should be able to avoid major disasters for a long time.
On Carthage regime: Carthage regime is similar to Sparta and has many advantages. Its system is based on aristocratic regime, with both civilian and oligarchic factors. The biggest drawback is that you are too rich; Fame can be sought, corruption is often seen in the history of officials, and there are many part-time jobs. Civilians are often moved to colonial areas to make them rich, so this country is quite safe.
Among the legislators of the previous generation, Solon, who was created for Athens, was a wise man. With democratic revenge, he completed a new generation of policies, but he was able to keep the old morality and not give up good rules.
Volume III Civil and Political Theory
The city-state is a collective of citizens, and we must first understand the essence of citizens. The right of residence and litigation, or the descendants of citizens, are not enough to constitute citizenship; Political rights are the real conditions of civil rights. In the poor regime, "all citizens have the right to participate in the deliberation, judicial and administrative organs for life." As far as the general system is concerned, "all citizens" can participate in judicial and deliberative bodies for a certain period of time.
Traditionally, only the descendants of both parents can become citizens. After the general reform, many people can be naturalized as new citizens. Although these new citizens are not a clan, according to the above definition, they have gained political rights and are actually citizens.
Some people say that people who become new citizens by virtue of the revolutionary government cannot be regarded as real city-state citizens. Therefore, we should treat the unity of the city-state dialectically.
Another question that should be dialectical is: "Is the character of a good citizen the same as that of a good person?" Different regimes have different purposes, and every regime needs good citizens who are consistent with their purposes. Although in an ideal city-state, different political functions have different virtues, good people all over the world have the same virtues. So good citizens are not necessarily good people. Only the ideal city-state and its proposed politics belong to the system of taking turns to govern. In this system, citizens must have the virtues of both the ruler and the ruled, and everyone must have four virtues: good citizens and good people here are the same.
Although craftsmen and laborers are necessary for a city-state, they do not have the virtues that good citizens should have, so they should not be registered as citizens. However, different systems have different registration laws. As a rule, the aristocratic regime prohibits craftsmen from becoming citizens, while the oligarchic regime allows rich craftsmen to register. As for the reduction of factor accounts of civilian city-states and the country's need for soldiers, the registration law is often relaxed to accommodate craftsmen.
Political power is classified according to its purpose and form. As far as the purpose is concerned, anyone who seeks a better life for the benefit of the people of the whole state is classified as an authentic regime; On the contrary, we only seek the abnormal regime of the ruling class.
As far as the form of political power is concerned, authentic political power can be divided into three types according to rulers: monarch, aristocrat and * * * political body, while abnormal political power can be divided into creditors, oligarchs and civilians.
However, the actual classification of political power lies not only in the number of rulers, but also in the social strata divided by assets, which is the basis of political power: oligarchy is indeed ruled by the rich, while civilian government is ruled by the poor, and its number is only the attribute of class differences, not the essence of class differences.
Various disputes hold different views on justice: populists believe that all people are born equal and all rights should be equal. Oligopoly believes that people's wealth is unequal and all rights are unequal. The purpose of the city-state is not only to seek human survival, but also to achieve a better life. These purposes do not contribute much, and the corresponding rights are allocated according to the weight of contribution.
It is difficult to determine whether the supreme sovereignty of the polis should be entrusted to the people or a few rich families, a few national football players or the most superior people or creditors. If the supreme right should not be placed on anyone or a few people, but only on the law, it is difficult to draw a conclusion.
Political morality attaches great importance to justice. Justice distributes the same amount of food to the same number of people according to the principle of fairness. The allocation standard of political rights should be based on the contribution to the group: everyone should be allocated as many rights as he or she.
There are five kinds of monarchies: Sparta, the king of barbarians, the elected president, the monarchy in the epic era, and the absolute monarch.
Volume 4 Categories of Realistic Regimes
Political science studies the ideal whole and practical problems, such as: what is the best form of government under realistic conditions; What is the best regime that most city-states can implement? How to maintain the authenticity of a regime; What is the difference between the more important types of civilians and oligarchs in a regime? The overall study of political science is also the study of law.
In addition to monarchy and aristocracy, we should continue to list four types of authentic political bodies and abnormal civilians, oligarchs and creditors, explain their types and analyze what forms civic organizations adapt to, as well as how various forms form and collapse, and how to preserve them.
Each type of government is caused by different parts of the city-state, such as the differences between civilians and nobles. The political function of each city-state has several different arrangements and can also be based on several different regimes. Some people say that there are only two political systems: civilians and oligarchs, and the rest are two intermediates. This statement is very general, but not accurate.
The civilian population as a whole is ruled by the majority of the poor, and oligarchy is ruled by a few rich people. For the analysis of the differences and composition of various animal organs, we should also consider all forms of the social composition and political system of the polis. From this analysis, we can see that civilians as a whole can be divided into five categories. Similarly, there are four types of oligarchy, and the worst is the "gate regime". The ruling party is extremely narrow, its position is hereditary, and its rights are above the law. This is also similar to debt politics.
Pure aristocratic regime should be a regime with both ability and political integrity; The other three are mixed with other factors, close to * * * and political power.
Good at politics, moderate, middle-class and political power between civilians, can coordinate the disputes between the two classes, which is more serious and suitable for ordinary city-States. However, since ancient times, the middle class is small, and they are not fighting for political rights. Sparta and Athens encouraged their countries to go to the extreme of poverty and oligarchy, so the system of * * * is rare in Greece.
The mixed system requires a balance between quality. If the number of civilians in China is better than the quality of wealth, it is bound to establish a civilian regime, otherwise, it will establish an oligarchy regime.
There are five ways for oligarchy to deceive ordinary people. Civilians as a whole also have corresponding methods to deceive the rich room. But cheating is better than honesty, and winning is better than cooperation. The organizations of a country are similar to the armed forces. Deception can never make people declare their labor and devote themselves to serving the country.
The city-state has three functions: deliberation, administration and trial. The formation of the function of deliberation is that all citizens discuss everything, some citizens discuss everything, all citizens discuss some things, and some citizens discuss some things. In practice, these three ways can have several different arrangements to adapt to different types of governments.
As far as administrative agencies are concerned, their functions are more or less, their authority is lighter or heavier, their term of office is longer or shorter, and their appointment methods are different, such as election or lottery. Every regime should choose its own arrangement that conforms to its founding purpose. Judicial institutions, namely courts, are divided into eight categories according to the nature of cases and trial procedures.
The fifth volume coup and reform
The general city-state takes the idea of justice and equality as the principle of political construction, and different parts of the country try to overthrow this regime, which is the general reason of coup and reform. The advantage of a coup is to completely overthrow the old regime, sometimes only as some partial reforms.
Populism is equal in quantity, biased and not immune from internal resistance, but the poor as a whole are often more stable than oligarchs. This paper analyzes the general reasons for this change from three aspects: the general psychological situation, the revolutionary's attempt and the motivation of the incident.
The civilian regime is often changed by the policy of mass leaders invading the rich, or provoked into the reaction of the rich, or the masses take the opportunity to stand on their own feet as creditors. Political activists often seek to expand the rights of the masses to please the civilians, so the civilian regime changed from a moderate old regime to an extreme type in modern times. The change of oligarchy is often caused by the government's abuse of civilians or the direction of the rulers. Sometimes, with the increase of social wealth, more and more people have official qualifications, the composition of the ruling group changes, and then there is a change of regime.
Ways to maintain and protect ordinary people, oligarchs, aristocrats, * * and political groups: rectify law and order to prevent muddling through; Emphasis on trust, harmony and the whole country; Always be alert to the enemy, unite with the people, reward and punish moderately, pay attention to helping those who fail internally, and don't let some people get rich.
Continue to describe the way to preserve the political system: the rulers should be loyal and talented, and abide by the law. Any political system can only be stable if it is supported by the majority of the votes. Don't go to extremes in all measures, only the middle way can last long. Educate the people to make their life thoughts and daily behaviors conform to the essence of the Constitution; The world often ignores civic education, especially extreme civilian regimes that encourage arbitrary freedom.
The maintenance of the royal family depends on humility and gentleness. There are two policies to protect creditors. One is to adopt a high-handed policy similar to that of the super-civilian regime, destroy the people's will with severe punishments, exhaust their surplus capital with heavy customers, sow the seeds of discord, and make the people suspect each other. Another policy is to disguise the monarchy, avoid capital constraints, and whitewash it as benevolent government, thus slightly prolonging its fate.
But autocracy can't last, and the life span of ancient creditors is very short. Comments on relevant theories in Plato's Republic.
Volume VI Methods of Establishing Civilian Power
The variant of civilian government is composed of different people and different combinations of democratic functions and functions.
With freedom as its aim, the civilian regime should take turns to participate in serious matters and demand "whatever you want" in life. The arrangement of administrative, judicial and deliberative functions needs to be consistent with the purpose of this freedom. Deliberation and judicial power are open to all citizens, selection and meetings are held by lottery, and officials should be given allowances and terms of office. Are the characteristics of civilian institutions.
Populism depends on the number of people with the highest power, while oligarchy depends on wealth. The supreme rights established according to these principles are still above the law and may be implemented. A good organization should include two principles to make the group in charge of the highest power redundant and rich in resources.
The civilian regime established by four people of different natures is the best. Under this civilian regime, the interests of the class with more assets and the class with less assets can be balanced. This regime should adopt policies to promote agricultural development. Followed by animal husbandry; The third is the industrial and commercial style, and finally the all-round super-civilian system.
The best oligarchy corresponds to the agricultural civilian regime, and the property qualifications of officials are not high. In the last oligarchy, the property qualification is particularly high, which corresponds to the total number of people who rely on the extreme civilian regime, which means it is difficult to be in power stably. Military composition has a great influence on oligarchy, and cavalry is beneficial to oligarchy. On the contrary, light infantry and navy are beneficial to the civilian regime.
Generally speaking, there are various functions that should be carefully re-established. List the important functions that all city-states should set and the special functions that some city-states should set.
Volume 7 Political ideals and educational principles
Volume 8 Youth Training
It is assumed that the best life of an individual or city-state is a life with enough virtues to have behaviors suitable for virtues. The best regime must be such a system, and people can have the kindest behavior and the happiest life by following it. (Here, Aristotle admits that the goal of most city-states is to seek power. Lawmakers should take leisure and peace as their legal purpose.
Enlightenment from politics;
1, people should not be too extreme, not extreme, but moderate.
2. Good governance is an important category in Aristotle's political science, which is between ideal and reality. Its economic and social premise is the public and private property system and the social structure dominated by the middle class. Its institutional arrangement is a mixed regime based on the rule of law, and its humanistic basis is the virtue education led by the city-state. Aristotle's theory of good governance provides valuable spiritual resources and enlightenment for the theoretical research of modern politics.
3. In his masterpiece Politics, Aristotle made many designs and expositions on a harmonious and stable ideal society. In order to maintain the crisis-ridden ancient Greek city-state, Aristotle proposed to build a society ruled by law with the middle class as the main body, emphasized the important role of fairness and justice in maintaining the stability and harmony of the city-state, advocated the diversification of social composition, attached importance to the quantity and quality of education and population, and advocated the harmony between people. Theoretically, we have boldly conceived and planned the construction of a harmonious and stable city-state, and many of its highlights have important reference, inspiration and reference significance for the ongoing construction of a harmonious society.
4, to dare to doubt, dare to put forward wrong views, have their own opinions, have their own ideas.