Reform background
In the 6th century BC, with the development of industry and commerce in Athens, a new industrial and commercial class appeared in Athens. Due to the development of slave ownership, many civilians in Athens were enslaved by clan nobles because of debts, and the struggle of civilians against exploitation, oppression and monopoly of political power by clan nobles was fierce. In 594 BC, Solon was elected as the chief consul, became the arbiter between the two sides of the struggle, and carried out extensive reforms as a legislator.
Cristini's reform
Cristini reform
In 508 BC, Cristini, an Athenian politician (about 570-508 BC) carried out political and social reforms. After the tyrant was overthrown in 5 10 BC, the struggle between clans and nobles, clans and civilians intensified, and clans, phratries and tribal organizations that maintained kinship could not meet the needs of the further development of slave-holding countries. Cristini was the chief consul of Athens from 525 BC to 524 BC. In 508 BC, he joined forces with civilians and carried out a series of major reforms through the citizens' assembly.
First, he established 10 regional tribes to replace the original four clan tribes. Athens is divided into urban area, coastal area and inland area, and each area is divided into ten parts, which is called trinity area. By drawing lots, a trinity area is drawn from each region to synthesize a regional tribe. Trinity is divided into several Demos (autonomous village societies), which constitute the basic units of political, social and religious activities of Athenian citizens. Young men who have reached the age of 18 in Athens can obtain citizenship through a certain naturalization ceremony in Demos where their parents belong. Some foreigners also obtained Athenian citizenship in Demos. In this way, the principle of region replaced the principle of consanguinity and weakened the influence of clan nobles in all aspects. Secondly, it is stipulated that tribes in each region should elect 50 citizens over the age of 30 to form a 500-member parliament every year, instead of the 400-member parliament founded by Solon, and become the drafting body for the proposal of the citizens' assembly, which is responsible for handling the daily administrative affairs of the country. Cristini has also strengthened the activities of citizens' congresses and people's courts. According to his suggestion, the law of banishing shells (or pottery pieces) was made to prevent the tyrant from reappearing.
Cleisthenes's reform promoted the development of Athenian democracy, strengthened the unity of Athenian citizens, and was conducive to the consolidation and development of Athenian polis.
In the Christian era, the number of officials in Athens was relatively small, but as Athens jumped from a small city-state to a metropolis in the ancient Greek world and was the leader of the Tyrol League, the number of officials needed in Athens increased dramatically. In the 5th and 4th centuries BC, about 600 administrative officials in Athens handled the diplomatic relations with the Allies, the public funds of the Tyrol League, public buildings and the establishment of the Alliance Fleet.
Administrative officials must be at least 30 years old and belong to three classes: pentakosiomedimnoi, hippie and zeugitai. The conditions are the same as those of the 500-member parliament, but in fact, the working class such as thetes can be accepted as long as they answer that they are the top three classes after the election. Every public office is a one-year term, and you can only hold the same position once in your life, nor can you hold different positions at the same time. But generally speaking, it is impossible for officials to continue their official career, because all administrative officials, 500 members of parliament and consuls have to go through the investigation process named euthynai for several months after completing their public service for one year, including a 10 team named logistai to actively investigate the behavior of officials and a special court composed of 50 1 jury judges to accept citizens' complaints. Therefore, if every official
Most officials are in groups of ten, and each tribe has an official position. About 100 officials are elected, including infantry and cavalry commanders, financial officials and officials in charge of religious affairs, because these positions require certain professional skills. These officials will be selected from a number of people provided by various tribes at a civic meeting every winter, and then they will be trained and tested before their posts so that they can work smoothly in the midsummer and New Year in ancient Greece.
The remaining 500 officials will be selected by lottery among volunteers. Some positions will be fiercely competitive because of their great power and high popularity, but some public officials will have to work without vacancies because no one is in charge. Tribes will provide lists of many people to the city-states, and then draw lots at the shelter in theseus, east of the Acropolis, to decide the candidates. The whole lottery process was presided over by six judicial consuls, thesmothetai. These officials were in charge of general administrative affairs, such as controlling markets and weights and measures, supervising officials to sell wheat supplies, repairing temples, supervising city-state finances, maintaining and cleaning roads, and managing 300 archers and policemen in West Xu Ya. One of the administrative teams is quite special. A law enforcement team is in charge of the city-state prison, dealing with the confiscation of property and executing punishments including the death penalty. Some of them have 1 1 members instead of 10.
Like members of the 500-member parliament, officials have some privileges during their tenure, including exemption from military service, special seats in city-state celebrations, and wearing a crown made of myrtle to show their identity. After 450 BC, officials can also receive a certain salary to subsidize poor households to perform official duties.
1, background:
(1) After Solon's reform, many local political factions appeared in Athens, mainly including the plain faction, the coastal faction and the mountain faction.
(2) In 508 BC, Cleisthenes served as the chief consul, and cooperated with civilians to carry out reforms.
2. Contents and functions:
(1) replaced the clan organization with the hell organization. This is helpful to weaken the control of clan nobles on local political power and promote the integration between different tribes.
(2) Further reform the organs of state power: establish a new 500-member parliament to replace the original 400-member parliament, and the number of members shall be distributed in proportion to the number of citizens in residential areas throughout the country. Thus, the earliest proportional representation election law was established. The election criteria of parliamentarians embody the democratic principles of equal opportunity and term system.
(3) Establish the "exile law of pottery pieces". This is a law to ensure the long-term existence of democratic regime, which can effectively prevent political careerists from subverting democratic regime.
3. Significance:
Cristini Reform firmly established the democratic system in Athens, and wrote the final rest for the formation of democracy in Athens.
main content
1, economically:
(1) Abolish all debts owed by Athenian citizens as collateral, prohibit personal mortgage loans, and prohibit turning indebted civilians into slaves. The state paid to redeem those who were sold to foreign countries as slaves because they could not repay their debts. This measure is called "release order".
(2) Implementing a series of policies and measures that are beneficial to the development of industry and commerce, including restricting the export of grain and expanding the export of olive oil; Carry out currency reform to promote commercial trade; Encourage foreign craftsmen to immigrate to Athens and encourage citizens to learn handicraft techniques; Reform weights and measures, cast new Athens currency, and formulated some laws and regulations on property inheritance, prohibition of reburial, and compensation for relatives of citizens who sacrificed their country.
(3) recognize the freedom of private property inheritance and eliminate all clan remnants in the system.
2. politically:
(1) Abolish hereditary aristocratic monopoly, and no longer divide citizens by birth and property. According to the total income of agricultural products in one year, citizens are divided into four grades (the number of cereals and other products imported each year is divided into four grades), and the political rights of each grade depend on their financial resources. First-class and second-class citizens can hold senior state posts; The third level can be a low-level official position; Citizens at the fourth level cannot hold official positions, but they have the right to participate in citizens' meetings and people's courts.
(2) Establish a meeting of 400 people as the permanent body and the highest administrative organ of the citizens' assembly. The 400-member conference consists of 65,438+000 people from each of the four tribes, and all citizens except the fourth grade can be elected.
(3) Establish a jury court. As the highest judicial organ, any citizen has the right of appeal. Jurors in the jury court are selected by citizens at all levels by drawing lots. The jury court accepts and decides citizens' complaints or appeals, which expands citizens' rights.
(4) Formulate a new code to replace Gracchus's draconian laws, and only keep the part about homicide, so as to make the whole Athens law more humane.
Significance of reform
Solon's reform neither accommodated nobles nor favored civilians, and the fourth class with the least income did not enjoy the right to hold government posts and run for the "400-member conference". This neutral policy failed to completely solve social contradictions. However, the reform changed the situation of aristocratic autocracy to a certain extent and promoted the development of democracy and commodity economy in Athens.
Through these reforms, the poor citizens in Athens got rid of the threat of debt slavery, attacked aristocratic rule and consolidated the city-state system. At the same time, Solon prevented the excessive concentration of land by stipulating the maximum amount of land occupied by individual citizens, which made the city-state system develop healthily and democratic politics developed. The measures to protect and promote industry and commerce made the status of industrial and commercial slave owners rise rapidly, and the slave economy began to prosper.
Solon's reform is an important milestone in the historical development of Athens city-state, which laid the foundation of Athens' democratic politics, promoted the development of industry and commerce, adjusted the interest relationship between different classes of citizens' collective, and guaranteed the economic, political and social status of small and medium-sized owners engaged in their own labor.