The second dynasty: 2850 ~ 2686 BC. From Hotepseknemoui to kask, there are six pharaohs.
Ancient Kingdom or Memphis Empire (2686 ~ 2 BC181year)
The third dynasty: 2686 ~ 26 BC13 years. From Neteriknet-Djeser in Natri to Houni, * * * has five kings. Jossel's rule was the beginning of power and victory. At this time, a magnificent stone building represented by the stepped pyramid building in Shakala appeared. Imhotep, the architect, writer and scholar of the complex, became one of the first great men in history books. This era is a period of the development of a powerful centralized monarchy. The monarch sat in Memphis and appointed the governor to rule the country.
The fourth dynasty: 26 BC13 ~ 2494. From Snefrou to Skepseskaf, there were six or seven pharaohs. Judging from the grandeur of the pyramids, the rule of Snefru, Khufu and harff was the peak of this era. The pyramids built in Dashar, Merton and Kisa show the good governance and economic prosperity of the dynasty. The fifth dynasty: 2494 ~ 2345 BC. From Uzer to Unas, there were nine pharaohs. The most famous are Sahoure and Djedkare-Isesi.
In the fifth dynasty, the consciousness of "sun worship" developed rapidly, and the famous pyramid inscription was engraved on the wall of the Wunis pyramid in Shakara. The sixth dynasty: 2345 ~ 2 BC181year. From Titi I to Queen Nitocris, the seven kings include Pepi I and Pepy II who lived for hundreds of years.
Although the Sixth Dynasty was famous for its military and commercial expeditions as far away as the southern tip of Africa, Memphis, a place where some governors kept expanding and concentrating in history, was threatened and caused civil strife.
The first transitional period (2181~1991BC)
Seventh dynasty: only ruled for 70 days.
The eighth dynasty: 2 18 1 ~ 2 130 BC. * * * There were eight to twenty-seven pharaohs, but their names were not recorded.
The ninth dynasty to the tenth dynasty: 2 130 ~ 2040 BC in the north. There are six pharaohs, three of whom are called Katie.
Eleventh dynasty: 2 130 ~ 2040 BC in the south. * * * There are three pharaohs.
Montuhotep II unified the whole country in 2050 BC, and the Thebes monarch of the 1 1 dynasty ruled the whole of Egypt. Although this makes their hometown Thebes more and more important, it is still not enough to replace Memphis. The rulers of Thebes had to travel back and forth in fashion, and built palaces and small towns such as Yiti-Tawi at the entrance of Fayoum in the 12 dynasty. The dynasty moved the center of power northward without giving up Thebes, indicating that the powerful centralized government was gradually restored.
The Middle Kingdom or the First Empire of Thebes (BC 199 1 ~ 1786)
The end of the eleventh dynasty: 2060 ~ 2000 BC. Three Montuhot elders unified Egypt for the first time around 2040 BC. Twelfth dynasty: 2000 ~ 1786 BC. Seven pharaohs were named Amon Hamat or Sesot Rees, and the last ruler was Queen Nefirul of Zeebek.
Like other countries in the world, stability and turmoil always appear alternately. The provincial decentralization forces and other forces unknown in history destroyed the Thebes regime inherited from the twelfth dynasty, and Egypt was divided into many vassal States.
The second transitional period (BC 1786 ~ BC 1567)
13th to 14th dynasties: BC 1786 ~ BC 1674. There are about forty pharaohs, some of whom are named Sebehotep. Some pharaohs ruled the northern, central and southern old French areas at the same time. Since BC 1730, these kings have only been vassals of Pharaoh Hikso.
Fifteenth to sixteenth generations: BC 1674 ~ BC 1567. The 16th dynasty is called "Little Sissok" dynasty, which only exists in the eastern delta. There were five pharaohs in the "Great Sissok" dynasty, including one Khyan and two Apopi.
Seventeenth dynasty: BC 1674 ~ 1567. Ten pharaohs ruled Thebes and its surrounding areas. They are vassals of Sissok. The last three pharaohs, Ta 'a I, Ta 'a II and Ka Mosis, began to struggle with the Sissok people in the north.
The New Kingdom or the Second Kingdom of Thebes (BC 1567 ~ 1085)
Eighteenth dynasty: 1567 ~ 1320 BC. From Ahmosis to Horan Heb, * * * has fourteen monarchs, including four Bittemos and four Amenorfis. Empress Ashipusu, Empress Ahnatun and Empress Tutankhamun all belonged to this dynasty.
The 19 dynasty: 1320 ~ 1200 BC. Nine pharaohs of Ramses, including Ramesses I II and seti i II.
Twentieth dynasty: BC 1200 ~ 1085. Ten monarchs, except the first named Sethnakht, are all named Ramses.
The third transitional period (BC 1085 ~ 7 15 years)
The 2nd1dynasty: 65438 BC+0085 BC ~ 945 BC. In tanis, there are Daisy, Pusunas I and II. Rehor and Pinajem ruled Thebes.
Ancient Egyptian civilization refers to the period from the first waterfall of the Nile to the delta, from the Tassa culture in 5000 BC to the Arab conquest of Egypt in 642 AD.
In the 3rd century BC, Manieto divided Egyptian history from menes to Macedonian conquest of Alexandria into thirty (or thirty-one) dynasties.
Kingdom of Babylon:
According to the inference of historical scholars, Sumerians living in this area had a relatively developed culture around 4000 BC, and not only invented writing, but also invented writing on the blackboard. After the decline of Sumer, the city of Babylon rose. The first Babylonian dynasty began in about 1894 BC, and by the time of the sixth king Hammurabi (1792 ~ 1750), it conquered the northern and southern cities, established a centralized autocratic system, and promulgated the code of hammurabi, thus completing the unification of the two river basins. Then it experienced the second dynasty (from the middle of the 6th century BC/kloc-0 to BC 1530), the third dynasty (from about BC 1530 to BC157) and the fourth dynasty (from 65438 to BC/kloc). In 626 BC, the Chaldeans occupied Babylon and established a new kingdom of Babylon, which reached its peak under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 BC). In 538 BC, the 88-year-old new kingdom of Babylon was incorporated into the territory of the Persian Empire.
It entered civilization in 3500 BC and reached its peak from 4000 BC to 2250 BC. The Old Testament called it "the land of Shinar". The fertile soil piled up on both sides of the two rivers is called "fertile crescent zone" in history (South America, which is as famous as the "Golden Triangle", is called "evil crescent zone"). Because the two rivers will not flood regularly like the Nile, it is necessary to observe the astronomical phenomena to determine the time. Su, who lives in the lower reaches, invented the lunar calendar, divided a year into 12 months and ***354 days based on the moon's profit and loss, and invented the leap month, placing 1 1 day different from the solar calendar. Divide an hour into 60 minutes and take 7 days as a week. He can also calculate fractions, add, subtract, multiply and divide, solve quadratic equations with one variable, and invent 10 decimal method and 16 decimal method. They divided the circle into 360 degrees until π was close to 3. Even calculate the area of irregular polygons and the volume of some cones.
culture
(4000 BC) Around 3500 BC, Sumerians living in the lower reaches of the two river basins first invented hieroglyphics with ideographic and signified symbols, which made the two river basins enter a historical era. By around 2800 BC, Sumerian hieroglyphics gradually developed and were widely used by Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians, because most of these characters were engraved on bricks, stones or black basalt and clay tablets, and they were "reprinted with a pen" and shaped like wedges, so they were called cuneiform, also known as nails or arrows.
Ancient Babylon-Mesopotamia was very developed in mathematics and arithmetic. Around 1800 BC, Babylonians invented the hexadecimal method, and they knew how to solve quadratic equations with one variable.
The Hanging Gardens in New Babylon (which started 626 years earlier than parks) are one of the seven wonders of the world. Legend has it that this garden was built by King Nebuchadnezzar II at that time for his wife. It is said that the Hanging Garden is a mountain built in a dry desert. The trees on the mountain are lush, the birds are singing and the flowers are fragrant, and the water is gurgling, which is amazing.
And invented the solar calendar, dividing a year into 12 months ***354 days.
And invented the leap month, which made 1 1 day different from the solar calendar.
Divide an hour into 60 minutes, 7 days a week.
He can also calculate fractions, add, subtract, multiply and divide, solve quadratic equations with one variable, and invent 10 decimal method and 16 decimal method.
They divided the circle into 360 degrees until π was close to 3. Even calculate the area of irregular polygons and the volume of some cones.
They are one of the earliest known civilizations in the world, and they first invented hieroglyphics with ideographic symbols and signifier symbols. Because most of these characters are carved on bricks, stones or black basalt and clay tablets, they are called cuneiform characters because they are "heavy from the pen and deep in imprint" and form a sharp wedge, which looks like a wooden wedge.
Code of hammurabi is the first existing written code of ancient West Asia.
Later, the Nile civilization and the Indus civilization developed under the impetus of the two river civilizations.
Ancient Greece:
The Greeks learned mathematics, physics and philosophy from there; Jews learned theology from there and spread it all over the world; Arabs learned architecture from there and used it to educate the whole medieval savage Europe.
It can be seen that the ancient Babylonian civilization can be called one of the four ancient civilizations, relying on more than just hanging gardens.
The geographical scope of ancient Greece, in addition to the present Greek peninsula, also includes the whole Aegean region and northern Macedonia and Thrace, Apennine Peninsula and Asia Minor. In the 5th and 6th centuries BC, especially after the Greek-Persian War, the economic life was highly prosperous, resulting in splendid Greek culture, which had a far-reaching impact on later generations. The ancient Greeks had profound attainments in literature, drama, sculpture, architecture, philosophy and many other aspects. After the destruction of ancient Greece, this cultural heritage was destructively continued by the ancient Romans, thus becoming the spiritual source of the whole western civilization.
Overview of ancient Greek architecture
A corner of the Acropolis in architecture, the ancient Greek heritage can be considered to have two themes. One is the image model contained in Greek architecture. These models first include a series of decorative terms, sculptures and styles, which are more or less completely accepted or intermittently used and discarded. Even if they fall out of favor, we can't rashly conclude that they have completely disappeared from the database of western architects. The second aspect of Greek architecture left in the world is the Greek view on the essence of architecture. Architectural form is always passively accepted by people, but the view on the essence of architecture can only be understood, and instinct is often found in some obvious places. It is known that in order to properly design the scale of buildings, a certain mathematical proportion must be followed. This view belongs to the Greeks, both in essence and in choosing an appropriate proportion. This view reappeared in the Renaissance, and sometimes the perfection of architectural form took pains to repeat some favorite shapes.
The existing architectural sites are mainly public buildings such as shrines, theaters and arenas, among which shrines are an important activity center of a city-state and can best represent the architectural characteristics of that period. The life of the ancient Greeks was controlled by religion, so naturally, the largest and most beautiful building in ancient Greece was the Greek temple. The ancient Greeks believed that God was also a human being, but God was more perfect than ordinary people. They think that the place where God lives is just a more advanced house than ordinary people. Therefore, the earliest temple buildings in Greece were just rectangular buildings with porches where nobles lived. Later, the column type was added, which gradually developed from the early "end colonnade" to the "front porch", that is, the porch in front of the temple was composed of four columns, and then developed to the "front and back porch". By the 6th century BC, the portico style had evolved into the standard form of Greek temple architecture-"enclosed column", that is, the rectangular temple was surrounded by colonnades. The overall style of Greek temple architecture is solemn and elegant, with harmonious, grand and lofty beauty. These style features are obvious in all aspects.
Characteristics of ancient Greek architecture
According to the heritage of Greek architecture, we can sum up several characteristics of ancient Greek architecture.
The first feature is a rectangle with a plane structure of 1: 1.6 18 or 1: 2, with a hall in the middle and columns around it, which can be collectively called a ring-column building. This modeling structure makes the ancient Greek architecture more artistic. Because under the irradiation of sunlight, various buildings produce rich light and shadow effects and changes in reality and reality, compared with other closed buildings, sunlight eliminates the dull feeling of closed walls and strengthens the characteristics of Greek architectural carving art.
The second feature is the rigidity of columns. * * * There are four kinds of columns: 1. Doric column, 2. Love Onek column, 3. Corinthian column, 4. Maiden statue column. These four columns are gradually formed in people's exploration, and the latter column is always linked with the former column, which has certain progressive significance. What runs through the four pillars is the eternal harmony between human beauty and numbers. The development of columns played a decisive role in the structure of ancient Greek architecture, and also had a great influence on the architectural style of ancient Rome and later Europe.
The third feature is that the double-sided sloping roof of the building forms a specific method of gable decoration before and after the building. In ancient Greek architecture, there were decorative techniques such as round carving, high relief and shallow relief, which created a unique decorative art.
The fourth feature is: advocating the harmony between human beauty and numbers is produced by the progressive artistic interest of civilians. The ancient Greeks advocated the beauty of the human body. Whether sculpture or architecture, they all think that the proportion of the human body is the most perfect. The great architect Vitruwe explained the ancient Greek theory: "Architecture ... must be strictly proportional to the styles of all parts of the human body." Therefore, the proportion and norms of ancient Greek architecture are completely consistent with the style of its cylindrical external form, which is based on the scale and beauty of the human body. Their shapes can be said to be the artistic expression of the beauty of human manners, shapes, faces and manners, and their proportions and norms can be said to be the image embodiment of human proportions and structural laws. Therefore, these pillars all have a noble beauty full of vitality, because they show the pride and nobility of people as the spirit of all things.
The fifth feature is that buildings and decorations are carved. Greek architecture and Greek sculpture are closely combined. It can be said that Greek architecture is a work of art carved from stone. From the vortex on the stigma of Ionek, the flower basket composed of honeysuckle leaves on the Corinthian stigma, to the girl with free expression on the stigma of the girl statue, the relief on the cornice of the gable of the temple is a fine carving art. It can be seen that sculpture is an important part of ancient Greek architecture, which created a perfect art of ancient Greek architecture. It is precisely because of sculpture that Greek architecture is more mysterious, noble, perfect and harmonious.
The period from the 6th century BC to the 4th century BC. This era is the heyday of the ancient Greek world, and all the city-states are prosperous and developed. Athens, which is located in the bay and has convenient transportation, has developed its industry and commerce day by day, and established a slave-owner democracy. In Athens, there is no king in the country, and the highest authority is the citizens' assembly, which is drawn by citizens to discuss state affairs.
In addition, the victory of foreign wars has also strengthened this prosperity to some extent. At the beginning of the 5th century BC, the economic and political contradiction between Greece and Persia triggered the Sino-Persian War, and the Greeks won great victories in the Marathon and Salami battles. After the war, many Greek city-states formed a maritime alliance to resist Persian aggression, and Athens became the leader. Since then, Athens' economy and politics have become increasingly prosperous, and it has also ushered in the golden age of ancient Greek literature.
Democracy in Athens is not only a model of ancient Greece, but also a model of the whole ancient world. The democratic politics in Athens is not only the first in human history, but also directly affects the political system in the west in later generations. In modern western languages such as English, French, German, Spanish and Russian, the word "democracy" evolved from "demokratia" in ancient Greek. The word "demokratia" in ancient Greek consists of two parts: Demos and Kratos. Demos means "people" and "region", and Kratos means "rule" and "management", so the so-called democracy is "people's rule" or "people's management".
Athens practiced "direct democracy" with the highest degree of democratization. In Pericles' era, all official positions in Athens were open to all citizens, and anyone could hold official positions at all levels in the government by drawing lots (except for ten generals). All government officials in Athens have a term of office, usually one year, and most of them cannot be re-elected to avoid cronyism. Athens also implements the Committee system, and all major affairs are decided by the collective, and the collective is responsible. Rather than one person in charge, thus avoiding tyranny and bureaucracy. In order to ensure that democracy is inviolable, since Cleisthenes's time, Athens has also enacted the exile law of pottery tablets, and used pottery tablets to elect people who may pose a threat to Athens' democracy. If someone gets more than 6000 votes, he will be exiled abroad and will not return until 10 years later, thus leaving no room for political careerists.
Ancient Rome:
The ancient Roman countries developed around the city of Rome. The city of Rome is located in the Tiber Valley of the Italian Peninsula. The city of Rome was developed by the villages on seven hills. In the sixth century BC, a wall was built around it, which is the city of Rome.
Immigrants from Roman countries and residents of conquered areas are called civilians. They are free men, but they have no political rights and cannot share the clan's public land. Many civilians became debt slaves because they were unable to repay the debts of the nobles.
In 509 BC, Rome established a slave republic. Two consuls are elected from the nobility to handle political affairs for a term of one year. * * * and all the power of the country is in the hands of the nobility. The consul and all senior positions are held by nobles. At that time, the Roman Republic was a slave country under aristocratic dictatorship.
Rome continued to expand, first unifying the Italian peninsula. By the second century BC, it had occupied many places around the Mediterranean, from Spain to Asia Minor, and ruled the Mediterranean.
Rome often sold all men, women and children in the conquered areas as slaves. Roman slave owners believed that slaves were just talking tools. They often abused and traded at will, and even crucified slaves. In Roman slave countries, slave labor was used in all walks of life. In addition to work, some slaves were forced to train as gladiators and fought fiercely for the pleasure of slave owners. In the city, there is a special slave market to buy and sell slaves. At that time, the number of slaves and the low price were unprecedented in history.
From 73 BC to 7/kloc-0 BC, Spartak led slaves to hold a large-scale uprising, in which a large number of bankrupt farmers participated, which dealt a heavy blow to the ruling class. At about this time, the power struggle within the ruling class was very fierce. After several struggles, Octavian finally won. In 27 BC, he became the emperor of Rome. From then on, Rome entered the period of slavery military empire. In the first 200 years of the empire, the country prospered, spanning Europe, Asia and Africa, and the Mediterranean became the inner lake of Rome.
In the first century AD, missionaries appeared among Jews in Palestine and Asia Minor under the rule of the Roman Empire. They preached that the "savior" would save the poor, and later said that Jesus was the "savior", that is, "Christ". Jesus preached in Palestine and was crucified. In fact, Jesus is a religious legend, but the working people get spiritual comfort, so they all believe in Jesus. This gave birth to Christianity, which is one of the three major religions in the world today.
In the third century, there was a crisis in the Roman Empire. Frequent people's uprisings, economic decline, official corruption and fierce power struggle. In 395, the empire was divided into two parts: East and West. With the decline of the empire, Germans from the north gradually entered the empire. In the fifth century, they successively established some countries on the original land of the Western Roman Empire. In 476, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was abolished and the Western Roman Empire perished. The Eastern Roman Empire continued to exist.