I. Political System of Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties
1. Political system in Xia and Shang Dynasties: ① The first dynasty in China's history, the Xia Dynasty, was founded by Yu, and the early national political system in China began in the Xia Dynasty. After the accession to the throne, the hereditary system of the throne replaced the abdication system in the late primitive society. (2) The Shang Dynasty inherited the Xia Dynasty's system, slightly changed it, and had a set of administrative management system from central to local. The central government has something clear, and the local government has something thin.
2. The enfeoffment system of the Western Zhou Dynasty: ① Zhou Wuwang destroyed the merchants and established the Western Zhou Dynasty. The western Zhou dynasty implemented the enfeoffment system, also known as the founding system. King Wu granted a certain amount of land and population to the royal family, heroes and nobles of the previous generation, so that they could establish vassal states and defend the royal family. The fundamental purpose is to consolidate the rule of the Zhou Dynasty. . Obligation: the vassals of the enfeoffment have the obligation to defend the territory, follow the battle and pay tribute to the pilgrimage. Influence: The enfeoffment system strengthened the Zhou Emperor's local rule, expanded the ruling area, and formed a strict hierarchical system of "emperor-vassal-master-scholar" within the aristocratic ruling class.
② In the late Western Zhou Dynasty, the kingship declined. With the growth of the vassal power, the enfeoffment system was destroyed. The landmark event was that the king of Chu won the championship.
3. Patriarchal system in the Western Zhou Dynasty: ① Patriarchal system is a political system with a feudal system, which evolved from the patriarchal system in primitive society. ② The biggest feature and core of the patriarchal clan system in the Western Zhou Dynasty is the direct inheritance system of the eldest son. Clans are big and small, the eldest son is big, and the rest are small clans, and small clans must obey big clans. The relationship between big and small clans is not only a family hierarchy (brother) relationship, but also a political subordination (superior and subordinate) relationship. ④ The patriarchal clan system is embodied in the political system by the enfeoffment system. From the emperor to the vassal, to Dr. Qing and then to the scholar (the lowest level), it was divided into several layers. Patriarchal clan system ensures the monopoly and privileged position of nobles in politics, and is also conducive to the stability and unity within the ruling group.
Second, the formation of centralization in the Qin Dynasty.
1, the supreme imperial power: ① During the Warring States Period, Ying Zheng, king of Qin, destroyed Korea, Zhao, Wei, Chu, Yan and Qi successively through Shang Yang's political reform, and established the first unified feudal dynasty in China history-Qin Dynasty. (2) Ying Zheng stipulated that the supreme feudal ruler was the "emperor" and called himself the "first emperor". 3 Qin Shihuang stipulated that the emperor called me; The emperor's orders are called "control" or "imperial edict"; The imperial seal used by the emperor is called "seal". All the administrative, economic and military powers of the country are in the hands of the emperor, and the main officials of the central and local governments are appointed and removed by the emperor. ④ The emperor system initiated by Qin Shihuang embodies the important characteristics of China's feudal autocracy.
2. A relatively complete central official system: ① Qin Shihuang established a relatively complete central political organization on the basis of the official system of the Warring States period. (2) in the central, set up the prime minister, suggestion and qiu, as the three highest positions in the central of the qin dynasty. The prime minister assisted the emperor in handling the political affairs of the whole country, and the imperial envoys were in charge of ministers' memorials, issued imperial edicts, and managed state supervision. Qiu is in charge of national military affairs. Military affairs are completely under the control of the emperor.
3. Full implementation of the county system: ① During the Spring and Autumn Period, some vassal states set up counties in newly annexed areas and counties in border areas. (2) During Shang Yang's political reform in the Warring States Period, the enfeoffment system was abolished and counties were established. (3) After the reunification of Qin, the enfeoffment system was abolished and the county system was implemented. (4) The county is the highest level local administrative organization lower than the central government, and the chief executive is the county magistrate. The county is the lower administrative organ of the county, and the chief is called the county magistrate or county magistrate. Below the county level are grass-roots administrative institutions such as townships and villages. ⑤ The Qin Dynasty, a pyramid-shaped ruling organization from central to local, had a clear division of official duties, that is, they cooperated with each other and contained each other, which marked the establishment of centralized feudal autocracy.
4. The function and influence of centralized system: ① Stabilize borders, safeguard national unity and expand territory. It formed the first unified multi-ethnic feudal country in the history of China-the Qin Dynasty. (2) Promulgating laws, unifying the measurement, currency and writing, repairing the equator and opening the Lingqu are conducive to the development of feudal economy and culture and the formation of the Chinese nation with the Chinese nation as the main body. (3) It laid the basic pattern of China's feudal political system for more than two thousand years, which was used by feudal dynasties. (4) The autocratic rule of Qin Shihuang put the people at a disadvantage and intensified class contradictions, which led to the first large-scale peasant uprising in the history of China, namely the Chen Sheng and Guangwu Uprising.
Third, the evolution of the political system from Han Dynasty to Yuan Dynasty.
1, the evolution of the central political system: ① The central political system in the Han Dynasty basically followed the Qin system, which was called "Han inherited the Qin system" in history. However, the harsh laws of the Qin dynasty were abolished, and there were gains and losses. (2) the Han dynasty emperor system, in the central set up the prime minister, the censor and qiu, used to call "three public". (3) In the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wudi took cloth as the phase, and the attendants and secretaries around him were ministers. In order to form a "Chinese dynasty", and the organization of three officials and nine officials is called "foreign dynasty". (4) During the reign of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Shangshutai expanded its power and became the central decision-making body. ⑤ During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, a three-province system was formed: Shangshu Province, Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province. ⑥ In Sui Dynasty, Shangshu Province, Neishi Province and Menxia Province were the highest ruling institutions of the central government. The three provinces in the Tang Dynasty had a clear division of labor and three points of power. ⑦ During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Shangshu Province set up six departments, namely, officials, households, ceremonies, soldiers, punishments and workers, and established a six-department system in three provinces. In the early Song Dynasty, Zhongshumen was the highest administrative organ, and the Privy Council was the highest military and political organ, collectively known as the "Second Hospital". Later, assistant ministers were added and three secretaries were set up to manage the finances, which weakened the power of ministers. Pet-name ruby Yuan Dynasty integrated the political system of Han and Mongolia, set up the secretariat province and the Privy Council in the central government, and took the secretariat province as the highest administrative organ to exercise the functions and powers of prime minister; The Privy Council is the highest military organ, and Zheng Xuan House has been established to guide religious affairs and manage Tibet.
2. Evolution of local political system: ① The county system was implemented in the Warring States and the Qin Dynasty, which was inherited in the early Han Dynasty. At the same time, the vassal state was enfeoffed, and the county system was parallel. The county magistrate and the prime minister are the chief executives of the county and the kingdom respectively. When Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty removed the military and political power of the kingdom, the whole country was divided into 13 states, with states as prison areas and secretariat. ② During the Eastern Han Dynasty, local administrative power and military power gradually joined the secretariat, and by the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the country gradually evolved into a local administrative region. Local administrative divisions were changed from county-level system to state, county and county-level system. (3) In the early Sui Dynasty, local administrative agencies overlapped, with more officials and fewer people. Emperor Wendi of Sui Dynasty abolished the county level and formed a state-county two-level system. (4) The local administrative organs in the Tang Dynasty were the same as those in the Sui Dynasty, and Emperor Taizong divided the whole country into 10 roads. As a monitoring area, Tang Suzong changed the road supervisor into an observer, and the road gradually became an administrative entity at or above the county level. The establishment of a buffer region in the middle and late Tang Dynasty led to a separatist situation. ⑤ In the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty, Song Taizu cut the power of local time and appointed civil servants as local officials. In the Song Dynasty, local political power was divided into two levels: prefectures and counties. In the Tang Dynasty, "Dao" was changed to "Dao", which was above prefectures and counties. ⑥ The Yuan Dynasty implemented the provincial system in some areas. There are prefectures, prefectures and counties in all provinces, and propaganda departments in remote ethnic areas. The establishment of the provincial system is a major change in the ancient local administrative system in China and the beginning of the provincial system in China. ⑦ From the Han Dynasty to the Yuan Dynasty, the central government strictly restricted local administration and did not allow an independent administrative system to exist. Local officials must obey their superiors, local governments obey the central government and finally obey the monarch. Form a high degree of centralization.
With the establishment of the Qin emperor system, the emperor took over all the political, economic and military powers of this country.
The establishment of prime minister (decision-making), censor (supervision) and military attache (military affairs) in the central government marks the establishment of feudal autocracy and centralization.
Abandon the enfeoffment system and set up counties, with the county chief appointed by the emperor.
Han inherited the Qin system and made some changes.
There were three officials and nine ministers in the early Han Dynasty. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty: establishing China and Korea and weakening mutual rights. Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty: Set up a bookstore, and the emperor is in charge. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the counties and countries were in parallel, and the vassal power was great, which posed a threat to the central government. In the later period of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Zhou was appointed as a prison area and a secretariat to supervise governors and local senior officials on behalf of the central government.
At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, there were three levels: state, county and county.
Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties-Shangshu Province, Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province, three provinces system gradually formed.
Sui-Shangshu province, Minshi province and Menxia province, three provinces and counties.
In the Tang Dynasty, Zhongshu Province (decision-making), Menxia Province (deliberation) and Shangshu Province (execution, consisting of six departments) had three powers, and the three provinces contained and supervised each other to ensure the exclusive respect of absolute monarchy. Since then, it has been used for generations. At the state and county levels, Emperor Taizong established the Taoist temple as the prison area, and Shidao in Tang Suzong became the administrative entity above the state and county. Form (road), state and county.
In the middle and late Tang dynasty, our power expanded and developed into a separatist situation.
Song dynasty-the highest administrative organ: the highest military and political organs of the two houses under Zhongshumen: the Privy Council divided the prime minister's financial power; The three ministers divided up the executive power of the prime minister; They are involved in political affairs.
Weaken relative power and further strengthen imperial power. The local administrative system is Dao, Zhou and County.
Yuan-the comprehensive political system of Han and Mongolia, the Secretariat Province (six departments of administration and command), the Privy Council (military) and the Xuanzheng Institute (religion and Tibetan affairs). In the provincial system, except Hebei, Shanxi and Shandong, which are directly under the jurisdiction of Zhongshu Province, all localities have Zhongshu Province, with Pingzhang politics as the highest official, and the provincial government has great power. Remote areas are managed by Xuanwei Company. The provincial system strengthens centralization and consolidates the unity of multi-ethnic countries. Its establishment is a major change in the local administrative system and the beginning of the provincial system in China.
Ming Dynasty —— Abolishing the Prime Minister and Zhongshu Province, and managing the national government affairs in six departments, the absolute monarchy reached its peak.
Ming Taizu established Diange College, with students as attendants and consultants. Cabinet system was established when ancestors became ancestors. Xuanzong gave cabinet ministers the right to draft tickets.
There are three local departments: chief secretary (administration), military command department (military and political affairs) and inspection department (supervision).
From the Qing Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, the power of the King's Council was higher than that of the Cabinet and the Six Ministries, and the imperial power was greatly restricted.
During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, the South Study Room was set up, and the cabinet, the Council and the South Study Room stood in three pillars, focusing on the emperor.
The military department was established in Yongzheng, and the military affairs minister recorded and conveyed the emperor's will, and the absolute monarchy reached its peak.
Fourth, the strengthening of absolute monarchy in Ming and Qing Dynasties.
1, the abolition of the prime minister system: ① In the early Ming Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty system was followed, and the left and right prime ministers were in charge of six ministries and managed state administrative affairs. (2) Zhu Yuanzhang, the Ming emperor, abolished the province of books in the bank and set up the Chief Secretary, the command post of the capital and the inspection department, which were in charge of local administration, military affairs and supervision, and were collectively called the "three departments". Later, it was ordered to abolish Zhongshu Province and the Prime Minister, and manage the national government affairs in six departments. Since then, the prime minister system has been abolished. Absolute monarchy has reached a new height.
2. Establishment of Cabinet: ① After Ming Taizu abolished the Prime Minister, he appointed a university student as the squire's adviser. (2) During the reign of the Ming Dynasty, imperial academy officials were selected to join Wenyuan Pavilion to participate in the decision-making of confidential affairs, which was called "Cabinet" in history. Cabinet system was formally established. (3) When Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty proclaimed himself emperor, he was also granted the right to draft a cabinet college ticket. (4) The cabinet of the Ming Dynasty was never a statutory administrative or decision-making body at the central level, but a Chamberlain institution that provided advice to the emperor. ⑤ Cabinet is the product of the strengthening of autocratic monarchy, and it cannot restrict imperial power.
3. The peak of absolute monarchy: ① After Nurhachi established the post-Jin regime, he implemented the tradition of tribal aristocratic deliberation. (2) Huang taiji and Wang established a discussion meeting. There is also a cabinet with six departments. The power of the king's meeting is above the six ministries. The imperial power was greatly restricted. (3) After Emperor Kangxi came to power, South Study Room was set up, and the central organization was divided into three parts. The Cabinet, the Council and the South Study were three pillars, which restricted each other and finally concentrated in the hands of the emperor. (4) Yong Zhengdi, concurrently the Ministry of Military Affairs, was selected as the Minister of Military Aircraft by Manchu ministers trusted by the emperor. The meeting between Wang and Nan's study room existed in name only, and then it was cancelled one after another. The cabinet also existed in name only, and the absolute monarchy reached its peak. ⑤ The rulers of Qing Dynasty inherited the system of Ming Dynasty and pushed the absolute monarchy to its peak. The emperor is not only the highest legislator, but also the highest chief executive and the highest judicial official, free from restraint and supervision. This autocratic monarchy has greatly hindered the progress of society and the growth of capitalism.
What influence did the strengthening of absolute monarchy have on China society in Ming and Qing Dynasties?
Positive role: it is conducive to the unity and consolidation, social stability, economic development and cultural prosperity of multi-ethnic countries, and provides political guarantee for the emergence of the prosperous era of Kanggan.
Negative influence: the imperial power expanded extremely and became an important factor hindering social progress. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, bourgeois revolution or reform (the glorious revolution in Britain, the American War of Independence, etc. ) occurred in Britain and other western countries, established bourgeois rule and promoted the development of capitalism. The unprecedented strengthening of absolute monarchy in Ming and Qing Dynasties greatly hindered social progress. Since then, the development of China society has lagged far behind that of the West.
The cradle of Greek civilization
Characteristics-the influence of geographical and environmental factors
Economy: Surrounded by water on three sides, there are many harbors, especially the islands on the route to West Asia, which are conducive to navigation and cultural exchanges. Therefore, commodity production and overseas trade in Greece are relatively developed.
② External relations: Because navigation and navy were of great significance to ancient Greece, ancient Greeks with small land and large population often colonized and expanded overseas by virtue of this advantage.
(3) Politics: The Greek city-state is characterized by small countries and few people, and each state has long been independent and autonomous; The citizen politics carried out by the Greek city-state makes the citizens of the city-state enjoy more full political rights; In particular, the democracy in Athens provided valuable experience for future generations.
the athens democracy
Solon: According to the amount of property, citizens are divided into four classes. The citizens' assembly is the highest authority, and citizens at all levels can participate. The reform shook the hereditary privilege of the old clan nobles, guaranteed the democratic rights of citizens, and laid the foundation of Athenian democratic politics.
Clerides: There will be a 500-member parliament, which will take turns to govern.
Perikles: (The development of democratic politics reached its peak): The distribution of theater subsidies is a brilliant achievement in Athens' spiritual and cultural fields.
The basic characteristics of Athenian democracy are people's sovereignty and taking turns to govern.
Significance: ① Innovation: It provides a new form of collective management for mankind, creates a democratic operation mode, and accumulates valuable experience for the development of democratic politics in later generations.
Advantages: most people make decisions, making the problem more comprehensive; Most public officials are elected and supervised by the masses, which reduces the possibility of abusing power for personal gain.
(3) Civilization progress: it promoted the development of cultural undertakings and made Greek civilization an important civilization center in the ancient west and even the whole world.
Limitations: ① only for citizens, not for citizens, such as foreign immigrants, slaves and citizens of other countries, who have no democratic rights;
② Democracy of male citizens;
(3) All public offices are elected and drawn by lots, which may lead to extreme democratization and the decline of democracy.
The Origin and Development of Roman Law
Twelve tables method: including civil law, criminal law and litigation procedure, is basically a compilation of unwritten customary law in the past. He clearly defended private property rights and the vested interests of nobles.
Significance: ① It is the victory of civilians; (Reason: Because there is a written law, you should judge and sentence according to the law, and the nobles can't explain the customary law as before.
② This law is the origin of Roman law and the basic law of Rome;
③ Restriction: The fundamental purpose is to safeguard the interests of slave owners.
The Complete Book of Civil Law marks the final completion of the Roman Law Department.
The establishment of British constitutional monarchy
Glorious Revolution: Root: The feudal autocratic rule hindered the development of capitalism.
1640, Britain became a republic, 1688 was a glorious revolution.
Significance: It realized the bourgeoisie's desire to master political power, overthrew the feudal autocratic monarchy and established a constitutional monarchy, which opened the way for the development of British capitalist economy and the establishment of capitalist political economy.
Bill of Rights: 1689
Contents: ① Restrict the kingship from legislative, judicial, financial and military aspects;
(2) affirming the free power of parliament in the form of law;
Meaning:
The relationship between the king and parliament: the sovereignty of parliament is established, and the power of the king is restricted by parliament;
(2) The relationship between kingship and law: the king can only exercise his power within the scope stipulated by the Constitution, and Britain has established a constitutional monarchy;
(3) Changes in the way of governance: Britain implements the collective rule of parliament and the king, and the way of governance changes from the rule of man to the rule of law. Since then, British society has entered a period of long-term and stable development.
Features: parliamentary power is supreme, and the monarch is unified but not cured.
Responsible Cabinet: The Prime Minister holds state power.
(1) After the Glorious Revolution, the king gradually withdrew from the cabinet and became the "unified and immortal" head of state. The power and importance of the cabinet will also increase as it assumes actual administrative responsibilities;
② 172 1 year, Robert? Walpole became the first prime minister in British history, presiding over cabinet meetings and coordinating the work of various departments. The formation of the responsible cabinet system;
③ Development:/kloc-In the mid-9th century, with the gradual expansion of the electoral system and the development of the two-party system, parliamentary elections became a power struggle between two political parties, and the majority party that won the election came to power to form a cabinet.
The establishment of the American federal government
Serious political problems: ① Confederacy has limited power, no right to tax, and no military power; (2) the state has great power, and has the right to recruit, levy taxes and issue currency; (3) Frequent riots and social unrest; The United States is often at a disadvantage in trade with European countries, and its economic development is seriously affected.
1787, the federal constitution was promulgated-
Contents: ① It is stipulated that the United States is a federal state, and its rights are higher than those of the states; The federal government has political, economic, military and diplomatic powers.
Federalism principle: it stipulates a strong federal government, including the president, the national assembly and the federal judicial system; At the same time, the constitution allows States to retain greater autonomy;
President: the highest executive power, military command power, partial constitutional veto power, and the right to appoint senior government officials;
Parliament: financial power and legislative power;
Supreme Court: the highest judicial power and the power of constitutional interpretation.
Principle of separation of powers and checks and balances: the legislative, administrative and judicial powers are separated and mutually restricted.
The formation and development of the two-party system-19 The 1920s and 1930s were an important period for the formation of the two parties in the United States. 19 in the mid-1950s, a pattern of confrontation between democratic parties finally formed.
The expansion of capitalist political system in continental Europe
The hard road to peace in France-
1789 great revolution broke out 179 1 ~ 1792 constitutional monarchy 1793~~ 1804 * * Republic 1865438.
1815 ~1830 restoration dynasty1848 ~1852 second republic1852 ~1870 second empire.
France * * * and the establishment of political power-1875 The National Assembly adopted the Constitution of the Third Republic of France.
Influence: The system was finally established, which promoted the development of French capitalism.
Constitutional monarchy in the German Empire
The head of the empire is the "German Emperor". The emperor has the right to appoint prime ministers and officials of the empire; Have the right to convene and dissolve the federal parliament and the imperial parliament; Have the right to sign and publish imperial laws and supervise their implementation; The imperial army is commanded by the emperor, and the officers are appointed by the emperor. In short, the emperor is the master of supreme power.
⊙ The Prime Minister presides over the imperial government and is only responsible to the emperor, not to the parliament;
The Federal Parliament and the Imperial Parliament are legislative bodies and exercise legislative power. The imperial parliament is elected, but it cannot form a representative government, cannot pass any bills that are unfavorable to the government, has no administrative supervision power over the government, and the only thing that exerts pressure on the government is to approve the budget.
The German Empire implemented a constitutional monarchy, but it was strongly authoritarian.
Differences in political systems between Britain, the United States, France and Germany
Britain-hereditary monarchy;
The king only plays a ceremonial role and is a symbol of the country. The Cabinet is elected by and accountable to the Parliament. The Prime Minister of the Cabinet is the highest executive head, with the highest executive power and creative legislative power. Parliament is the highest authority, and parliament is the center of state power.
De-the emperor is the head of the empire and hereditary; Appoint the prime minister and officials of the empire, convene and dissolve parliament, sign and promulgate laws and supervise their implementation, command the army and appoint officers; The emperor appointed prime ministers and officials, and the prime minister presided over the imperial government and was only responsible to the emperor. Direct election cannot form a representative government, and it has no supervision over the government, only the power to examine and approve the budget. emperor
The United States-the president is both the head of state and the head of government; Elected by the people; Master the highest administrative power, military command power, partial legislative veto power, the power to appoint senior government officials and organize the government; The president appoints senior government officials, and the government is responsible to the president, with legislative power and financial power, and checks and balances the president with the president and the federal court.
France-democracy * * * and the president is both the head of state, the head of government and the supreme commander of the army; Elected by the National Assembly; Have the power to initiate laws and dissolve the House of Representatives; Both the president and cabinet ministers are responsible to parliament; Cabinet ministers are appointed by the president, and presidential decrees must be countersigned by ministers, and the cabinet is responsible to the parliament. Have the right to elect the president, legislative power and initiate laws; The President and ministers are accountable to Parliament, which supervises the government. Core features: representative democracy; Parliament has the same power: legislative power, financial power and administrative supervision power;
Ten Opium Wars
1 Background: (1) In the foreign trade between China and Britain, China is in a position of transcendence. (2) In order to reverse the trade deficit with China, Britain smuggled opium to China. (3) After the Industrial Revolution, Britain urgently needed to open the China market, making China its raw material producing area and commodity dumping market.
2 China Anti-smoking Campaign: (1) Reason: Opium import seriously harmed the Qing Dynasty. (2) Evaluation on the destruction of opium in Humen: It was a great victory of China's anti-smoking campaign, which showed the strong determination of the Chinese nation to resist foreign aggression.
The root of the Opium War: In order to open the China market, we plundered the commodity sales market and the origin of raw materials.
Humen Yanyun: Facing the harm of opium, Daoguang sent Lin Zexu to Guangdong to ban smoking. Lin Zexu arrested tobacco dealers in Guangdong, confiscated opium and destroyed it in public in Humen Beach, that is, Humen destroyed opium. Britain used this as an excuse to launch a war of aggression against China.
The signing of treaty of nanking: 1842, the Qing government was forced to sign the first unequal treaty with Britain in the modern history of China.
Main contents:
① Changes in social nature: from feudal society to semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. Politically, it was an independent feudal country before the war. After the war, through a series of unequal treaties, the sovereignty of territory, territorial sea, justice, tariffs and trade was seriously damaged, and China began to become a semi-colony. Economically, it was a self-sufficient feudal economy before the war, and the feudal natural economy in China began to collapse after the war.
② Changes in social contradictions: the contradiction between the landlord class and the peasant class began to change into the contradiction between foreign capitalism and the Chinese nation, feudalism and the masses of the people, and the contradiction between Chinese and foreign capitalism and the Chinese nation became the most important contradiction among various social contradictions.
(3) Changes in revolutionary tasks: Oppose China's feudal rule before the war and oppose feudalism and aggression after the war.
④ The change of revolutionary nature: China entered the period of old democratic revolution;
⑤ Changes in the ideological field: The new thinking of "learning from the West" began to sprout.
The Opium War was a turning point in China's history and the beginning of China's modern history.
After the Opium War, Britain forced the Qing government to sign the Five-Port Trade Charter and the Humen Treaty, from which Britain gained the privileges of "consular jurisdiction", "one-sided MFN treatment", leasing land and houses at trading ports and permanent residency. The United States and France also coerced the Qing government to sign the Wang Xia Treaty and the Huangpu Treaty respectively, and seized more aggressive rights and interests.
The Opium War resumed: (Second Opium War)
The root cause: Britain and France did not meet the vested interests of the Opium War, and demanded to further open the China market and expand the rights and interests of aggression.
Nature of war: unjust predatory war of aggression;
(1)1856, taking the blackmail of "amending the treaty" as an opportunity, Britain and France jointly launched the second opium war. (2) 1858, the British and French allied forces attacked Dagu in the north and advanced on Tianjin. The Qing government successively signed the Tianjin Treaty with Russia, the United States, Britain and France. (3)1859, the British and French allied forces captured Dagu and Tianjin again. 1860, invaded Beijing and looted Yuanmingyuan. ④ In1860, the Qing government signed the Beijing Treaty with Britain, France and Russia respectively.
Influence: Politically, China lost a large area of territory and sovereignty: the rulers of the Qing Dynasty defected to foreign invaders and began to become their vassals and tools, and reactionary forces at home and abroad openly colluded to suppress the resistance of the people of China. Economically, foreign aggression spread to coastal provinces and extended inland, which facilitated them to dump goods and plunder cheap raw materials and labor, making it difficult for China to resist the impact of capitalist economic aggression.
The 11th Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement
The fundamental reason for the rise of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement: corrupt feudal rule and heavy exploitation led to the intensification of class contradictions.
① Rise: jintian uprising 185 1 year.
② Development: Yong 'an organizational system, initially establishing political power; Tianjing, with its capital at 1853, formally established a political power against the Qing government;
③ heyday: 1853- 1856 carried out the Northern Expedition, the Western Expedition and the Eastern Expedition.
Northern Expedition: Purpose: To overthrow the rule of the Qing government.
Leaders:, Li,. Result: I failed, because I went deep alone. Significance: It contained the enemy forces and created favorable conditions for the victory of the Western Expedition and the Eastern Expedition.
Western Expedition: Purpose: Consolidate Tianjing Revolutionary Base Camp Leader: Lai Results: Shi Dakai defeated Xiang Army and consolidated Tianjing.
Crusade: Purpose: Cut off the financial resources of the Qing government and enrich its own economic strength. Leader: Qin Rigang Results: Yangzhou was captured, and the camp in the north and south of the Yangtze River was attacked, reaching its peak militarily.
Main contents:
The basic content is about land distribution, which fundamentally denies feudal land ownership.
(2) Regarding the distribution of products, it is stipulated that "the world is not private, and things belong to the owner".
(2) Evaluation: "China Land System" is a revolutionary program promulgated after the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom made Tianjing its capital.
Revolutionary: First of all, it clearly advocated the abolition of feudal private ownership of land, which became the peak of thousands of years of struggle of farmers in China;
Utopia: at that time, the average distribution of land and products could not be realized. This system of absolute average distribution violates the nature of small producers and cannot mobilize the revolutionary enthusiasm of farmers.
Backwardness: this program regards the small-scale peasant economy as an idealized goal, but it does not actually go beyond the economic category of feudalism.
Reasons: unable to mobilize the enthusiasm of farmers; Due to the war environment, it cannot be implemented;
Reasons for failure: ① Objective reasons: The collusion between Chinese and foreign reactionary forces was too strong, which killed the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom together.
② Subjective reasons: First, the limitations of the peasant class. The second is a strategic mistake.
(3) Lessons: The tragedy of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom shows that the peasant class can't lead the China revolution to victory due to the limitations of class and times.
(4) Historical significance: ① It was a great anti-feudal and anti-aggression peasant movement in the modern history of China (naturally), and it was the peak of the peasant war in China for thousands of years. (2) Insist on 14, which will affect 18 provinces and severely punish Chinese and foreign reactionary forces. Opposing feudalism accelerated the decline and collapse of the Qing Dynasty and even the whole feudal system. Anti-aggression soon broke the western invaders' attempt to colonize China. (4) Some leaders began to seek truth from the West and explore the road of China's independence and prosperity.
A new chapter for senior ministers
Content: Politics: advocating democratic economy: learning from the west, developing capitalist industrial and commercial culture education; setting up new schools.
Diplomacy: Free communication with foreign countries, but foreign countries are not allowed to interfere in China's internal affairs.
Evaluation: Senior Minister's New Chapter is Hong Rengan's plan to reform internal affairs and build the country in order to revitalize the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1859. It has a distinctive capitalist color, and it is the first plan put forward by advanced China people to develop capitalism in China. It is not the product of farmers' revolutionary practice, does not reflect farmers' wishes, and has not been implemented.