Say Xenophon first; Xenophon is a soldier, not very enlightened, and his views are generally conservative. Xenophon felt painful that Socrates was accused of ungodly and corrupting the youth; Contrary to these people, he strongly advocated that Socrates was very devout and played a very beneficial role in those who were influenced by him. It seems that his thoughts are by no means subversive, but rather plain and ordinary. This defense goes too far because it doesn't explain why people hate Socrates. Bennett said: (from Thales to Plato, page 149) "Xenophon's defense of Socrates was really successful. If Socrates is like that, he will never be executed. "
There is a tendency that everything Xenophon says must be true and credible, because he lacks the intelligence to imagine anything untrue. This is a very unreliable argument method. When a fool repeats what a wise man says, it is always inaccurate, because he will inadvertently translate what he hears into a language he can understand. I would rather have a philosopher who is my sworn enemy repeat my words than a good friend who doesn't understand philosophy. Therefore, if Xenophon's words contain any philosophical difficulties, or if its purpose is only to prove that Socrates' punishment is unfair, we cannot accept Xenophon's words.
But some memories of Xenophon are very convincing. He described (Plato also described) how Socrates constantly studied the problem of putting talented people in power. Socrates would ask such a question: "Who should I go to if I want to repair my shoes?" To this question, some frank young people replied, "Go to the shoemaker, Socrates." Socrates also mentioned carpenters and coppersmith. So he finally asked a question: "Who should repair the national ship?" When he clashed with the thirty tyrants, Clerides, the leader of the thirty tyrants, asked him for advice, became familiar with his methods, forbade him to continue teaching young people, and said to him, "Don't talk about your shoemakers, carpenters and coppersmith." Because you talk about them repeatedly, now they are rotten by you "(Memoirs of Xenophon, Volume/kloc-0, Chapter 2). This happened after the Peloponnesian War, when the Spartans established a short-term oligarchic government. But Athens was democratic most of the time, so democratic that even generals had to be elected or drawn by lot. Socrates once met a young man who wanted to be a general. Socrates suggested that he learn some war skills. So the young man went out to take some simple Science of Tactics courses. When he came back, Socrates ironically praised him and sent him to continue his studies (same book, volume 3, chapter 1). Socrates sent another young man to learn how to manage money. He took this approach to many people, including the Secretary of Defense. But people finally decided that it was easier to kill him and shut him up than to make up for all the crimes he accused.
As for Plato's account of Socrates, poverty is completely different from Xenophon's situation; That is, it is difficult for us to judge to what extent Plato intends to describe Socrates in history and to what extent he wants to regard the person named Socrates in the dialogue as only the mouthpiece of his own opinions. Plato is not only a philosopher, but also an imaginative writer with great talent and charm. No one would have thought, not even Plato himself, that the dialogues in his Dialogue were really as he recorded them. But in any case, in the previous dialogue, the dialogue was very natural and the characters were very convincing. It is precisely because of Plato's Excellence as a novelist that people doubt Plato as a historian. Socrates in the works is a consistent and extremely interesting character, a character far from being shaped by most people; But I think Plato can. That's enough. Create him. Of course, whether he created Socrates is another question.
It is generally believed that dialogues with historical authenticity are pleadings. This passage is said to be Socrates' words to defend himself during the trial-of course, it is not a shorthand record, but something that Plato kept in his memory several years later. It was collected by him and processed by literature and art. Plato was present at the trial. It seems obvious that he recorded what Socrates said he remembered. On the whole, his intention is in line with history. Although this dialogue has its limitations, it is enough to give Socrates a fairly accurate character image.
The main facts of Socrates' trial are beyond doubt. The charges on which the verdict is based are: Socrates is an evil eccentric who spies on things in the sky and underground; Say bad is good, and use it to teach others. "The real reason for his hatred-almost certainly-is that people think he colludes with optimates; Most of his students belong to optimates, and several students in power have proved to be extremely harmful. However, due to the Amnesty, this reason cannot be put forward publicly. Most courts found him guilty. At this time, according to the laws of Athens, he can ask for a lighter punishment than the death penalty. If judges think the defendant is guilty, they must choose between the sentence and the punishment demanded by the defendant. Therefore, it would be beneficial for Socrates if we could propose a fairly heavy punishment that the court considers appropriate and acceptable. But he proposed a fine of 30 mini, and several of his friends (including Plato) were willing to vouch for him. The punishment was so light that the court was very angry and sentenced him to death by a larger majority than when he was found guilty. There is no doubt that he foresaw the ending. Obviously, he didn't want to avoid the death penalty by making concessions that seemed to admit his guilt. Prosecutors include Anitus, a democratic politician; There is a tragic poet Meridu who is "young and nameless, with slender hair, sparse beard and aquiline nose"; There is also Li Kang, an unknown lyricist (see Bennett's From Thales to Plato, p. 180). They insist that Socrates' crime is not respecting the gods worshipped by the country and propagating other new gods, but also teaching and corrupting the youth.
We don't need to worry about the unsolvable problem of the deceptive relationship between Plato's Socrates and the real Socrates. Let's see how Plato made Socrates reply to this complaint. Socrates accused his prosecutor of rhetoric from the beginning, and refuted other people's accusations of his rhetoric. He said that his only eloquence was the truth. And they don't have to be angry with him if he speaks in his customary manner instead of "a set of polished speeches." He is over seventy years old and has never been to court. Therefore, they must forgive his speech outside the court.
He went on to say that in addition to formal prosecutors, he also has many informal prosecutors. Since these judges were children, they have been "preaching that there is a Socrates, who is a wise man." He wants to go to the sky and explore the ground, saying that bad things are good things. " He said that people think such people don't believe in the existence of God. This old-fashioned accusation put forward by public opinion is much more dangerous than a formal judgment. Especially dangerous is that he doesn't know who these words come from except aristophanes. (1) In view of the old hatred for him, it is pointed out that he is not a scientist himself-"I have nothing to do with the discussion of physics"-nor a teacher, and he does not earn money by teaching. Then, he laughed at the wise men and denied that they had the knowledge they claimed. However, "I am called a wise man. What is the reason for this notoriety?"
The thing is, someone once asked the Delphi altar if there was anyone smarter than Socrates; Delphi altar replied that there was no one else Socrates admitted that he was completely confused, because he knew nothing, and God would not lie. Therefore, he visited people who were famous for their wisdom everywhere to see if he could prove that God had made a mistake. First, he went to consult a politician, who was "considered by many people to be smart, but he thought he was smarter." Socrates soon discovered that this man was not wise, and kindly and firmly explained this to him; However, it turned out that he hated me. Socrates then asked the poets to explain the chapters they wrote, but they couldn't. Later, I learned that poets write poems not by wisdom, but by a kind of genius and inspiration. So he went to consult craftsmen and found them equally disappointing. He said he made many enemies in the process. Finally, he concluded: "Only God is wise; His answer is that human wisdom has little or no value; God is not talking about Socrates, he just uses my name as an explanation, as if to say: man! Only those who know that their wisdom is worthless like Socrates are the smartest people. " The exposure of this self-proclaimed wise man consumed all his time and reduced him to extreme poverty, but he felt it was a duty to testify for the Oracle.
He said that young people in the rich class have nothing to do, and they are willing to listen to him expose others and then do the same; This increased the number of his enemies. "Because they don't like to admit that their claimed knowledge is exposed." The above is the situation of the first type of prosecutors.
Socrates then questioned his prosecutor Merido, who claimed to be a good man and a true patriot. Socrates asked, who is the person who changed youth? Dumet originally proposed to be a judge; Then, under the gradual pressure, we have to say that everyone in Athens, except Socrates, is a person who improves youth; So Socrates congratulated Athens on its good luck. Secondly, he pointed out that getting along with good people is better than getting along with bad people; Therefore, he will never be stupid enough to have the intention of corrupting his compatriots; But if he didn't mean it, then Meridian should teach him a lesson, not blame him.
The indictment said that Socrates not only denied the god of the country, but also publicized his own god; But everyone in America says Socrates is a complete atheist, saying, "He says the sun is a stone and the moon is the earth." . Socrates replied that Merry might think she was accusing Anaxagoras, while Anaxagoras's point of view was that it needed a drachma to hear it in the theater. Of course, Socrates pointed out that the new accusation of complete atheism was contradictory to the indictment, and then he talked about the more general argument.
The tone of the remaining complaints is mainly religious. He used to be a soldier and stuck to his duties according to orders. Now, "God ordered me to complete the mission of a philosopher to explore himself and others", and it would be as shameful to give up other duties now as to give up duties in battle. Fear of death is not wisdom, because no one knows whether death will be a better thing. If he is allowed to live on the condition that he does not continue his past thinking, he will answer, "Athenian!" " I respect and love you, but I will obey God instead of you. As long as I have life and strength, I will not stop practicing philosophy and teaching philosophy, and encourage everyone I meet. ..... Because I know this is God's command; I believe that there has never been a better service to God in this country than me. He continued:
I still have something to say, and you will make a hullabaloo about it; But I believe it will do you good to listen to me, so I beg you not to shout. I want you to know that if you kill someone like me, you will hurt yourself more than you hurt me. Nothing can hurt me, neither Milito nor Anitus-they can't, because a bad person is not allowed to hurt someone better than themselves. I don't deny that Anitus may kill me, exile me, or deprive me of my citizenship; And he can imagine, and others can imagine, that he has done me great harm: but I don't agree with this idea. Because the crime of his behavior-the crime of unjustly depriving others of their lives-is a greater crime.
He said he was defending the judge, not himself. He is a gadfly sent by God to this country, and it is not easy to find another person like him. I'm sure you will be angry (like a person who suddenly wakes up from sleep). You think you can kill me as easily as Anitus suggested, and then you can spend the rest of your life in peace, unless God takes care of you and sends you another gadfly.
Why does he only talk in private, instead of making suggestions on public affairs? "Many times, in different places, you have heard me say that there is an Oracle or paranormal arrival to me, which is the mocking god in the indictment of Meridian Liuzhu. This supernatural phenomenon is a kind of sound. I was a child when I first thought about it. It always forbids me, but never orders me to do anything I want. This is also the reason that prevented me from becoming a politician. " He went on to say that honest people in politics don't live long. He cited two examples of his inevitable involvement in public affairs: the first time he rebelled against democracy; The second time was against the thirty tyrants, and the behavior of those in power was illegal. He pointed out that many people present were his former students and their fathers and brothers, and the indictment did not mention that any of these people could witness him corrupting the youth (this is almost the only argument that defense lawyers can recognize in the indictment). He refused to take the crying child to court as usual to soften the judge's heart; He said that this sight would make the defendant as ridiculous as the whole city-state. His job is to persuade the judges, not to ask their forgiveness.
After sentencing and rejecting another possible penalty, 30 mini (Socrates nominated Plato as one of his guarantors, and Plato also attended the court), Socrates made his last speech.
You who condemn me, now I am willing to prophesy to you; Because I'm going to die, and people are endowed with the ability to predict death. Therefore, I will predict to you my murderer; After my death, there is a heavier punishment waiting for you than what you imposed on me. ..... If you think you can stop others from condemning your evil life by killing people, you are wrong; This is an impossible and disgraceful way to escape. The simplest and noblest way is not to stop others from talking, but to correct yourself.
Then he turned to vote for the release of his judge and told them what he had done that day. His Oracle never opposed him, although on other occasions his Oracle often interrupted him halfway. He said, this is "a sign that what happened to me is a good thing, and those of us who think death is a bad thing are wrong." Because death is a dreamless sleep, which is obviously good, or the soul is transferred to another world. And "If one can talk to orpheus, Muse, Hesia and Homer, what else is he unwilling to give up?" If so, let me die before I die! "In another world, he can talk to other people who died of injustice, especially he can continue to pursue knowledge." In another world, people don't put a person to death for asking a question, absolutely not. Except for being happier than us, they will never die if all the statements about it are true. " ……
"It's time to die. Let's go our separate ways-I will die and you will live. Only God knows which is better. "
"Begging" paints a clear picture for a certain kind of people:
A very confident person, with a superior mind, does not care about worldly success or failure, believes that he is guided by a sacred voice, and firmly believes that a clear mind is the most important condition for a correct life. Apart from this last point, he is very much like a Christian martyr or a Puritan. From his last paragraph about death, it is impossible not to feel that he firmly believes in the immortality of the soul; And the uncertainty of his oral expression is only a hypothesis. Unlike Christians, he is not troubled by the fear of eternal suffering: he does not doubt that his life in another world will be a happy life. In the Phaedo, Socrates in Plato's works also put forward the reason to believe in the immortality of the soul; Whether these are the reasons that have influenced Socrates in history is uncertain.
There seems to be no doubt that Socrates in history did claim to be guided by the Oracle or the Koran. Whether it is the voice of conscience as Christians say, or whether it is a true and positive voice for Socrates, we don't know. Joan of Arc was inspired by this sound, which was originally a common form of insanity. Socrates may suffer from epileptic coma, which seems to be the natural explanation of an incident that happened during his military service:
One morning, Socrates was thinking about something he couldn't solve; He didn't want it to pass, so he had been thinking about noon since early morning-he stood there thinking motionless; At noon, people pay attention to others. People come and go, it is said that Socrates has stood here since dawn thinking about things. Finally, after dinner, it was dark, and a few Ionians, out of curiosity (I should say this happened not in winter, but in summer), moved their bedding and slept in the open air to observe Socrates and see if he would stand all night. He stood here until the next morning; At dawn, he prayed to the sun and then walked away. ("Feast Words" Volume 220)
This kind of situation, to a lesser extent, is often encountered by Socrates. At the beginning of the banquet, it is said that Socrates and Aristotle Tom went to the banquet together, and Socrates fell behind in a trance. When Aristo arrived, the host Agathon asked, "What did you do to Socrates?" Alex Todd was surprised to find that Socrates was not with him; They sent a slave to see Socrates, only to find him standing under the colonnade next door. The slave came back and said, "He just stood there. He didn't move when I called him. " . People who know Socrates explained: "He has this habit, he will stand down anytime and anywhere, and he will be lost in thought for no reason." So they stopped asking Socrates, who didn't come in until the middle of the party.
Everyone agrees that Socrates is ugly; He has a flat nose and a big belly; He is uglier than "all Silenus" in Xenophon's Banquet. He always walks around barefoot and in rags. His indifference to cold, heat and hunger surprised everyone. Alsi Byadis once described Socrates' military service at a banquet, saying: Our supplies were cut off, so we had to crawl forward. At this time, Socrates' persistence is really remarkable. He is not only better than me, but also better than everyone else: no one can compare with him. ..... His perseverance in enduring the cold is also amazing. Once there was a severe frost, because the winter in that area was really terrible. Others either hid in the house or wore terrible clothes, wrapped themselves up and wrapped their feet with blankets. At this time, only Socrates stood barefoot on the ice, wearing his usual clothes, but he walked better than other soldiers wearing shoes; They all looked askance at Socrates because he seemed to look down on them.
His control of physical desires is often emphasized. He seldom drinks, but when he drinks, he can drink better than anyone else; No one has ever seen him drunk. In love, even under the strongest temptation, he is always "Platonic"; If what Plato said is true, He is a perfect orpheus saint; In the opposition between the soul in heaven and the body on earth, he realized the complete control of the soul over the body. His indifference to death at the last moment is the final proof of this control. But at the same time, he is not the orthodox orpheus; He accepted only basic teachings, not superstitions and purification rituals.
Socrates in Plato's works predicted stoicism and cynicism. Stoicism advocates that the highest good is virtue, and one cannot be deprived of virtue by external reasons; This theory has been implied in Socrates' argument that his judge can't hurt him. Cynics despise the wealth of the world, which is manifested in their escape from the comfortable life of civilization; For the same reason, Socrates was able to live barefoot and in rags.
It seems certain that Socrates is mainly concerned with ethics rather than science. We have seen him say in his complaint that "I have no fate with the exploration of physics". Plato's earliest dialogues are recognized as the dialogues closest to Socrates, which mainly discuss the definition of ethical terms. Sametius is about the definition of the golden mean and the golden mean. High school is about friendship, and rush is about courage. In all these conversations, no conclusion was reached, but Socrates made it clear that he thought it important to discuss these issues. Socrates in Plato's works always insists that he knows nothing and thinks that he is smarter than others just because he knows nothing; But he doesn't think that knowledge is unavailable. On the contrary, he thinks the pursuit of knowledge is of great significance. He insists that no one knowingly commits a crime, so all is necessary to make everyone have perfect knowledge in virtue.
This close relationship between virtue and knowledge is the characteristic of Socrates and Plato. To some extent, it also exists in all Greek thoughts, which is contrary to Christian thoughts. In Christian ethics, inner purity is the most essential thing, which can be found at least between ignorant people and learned people. This difference between Greek ethics and Christian ethics runs through to this day.
Dialectics, that is, the method of seeking knowledge by asking questions, was not invented by Socrates. Dialectics seems to have been first used systematically by parmenides's disciple Zhi Nuo. In Plato's parmenides, Zhi Nuo treated Socrates in this way, just as Plato said elsewhere that Socrates treated others in this way. But we can imagine that Socrates used and developed this method for various reasons. As we have seen, when Socrates was sentenced to death, he happily thought that he could continue to ask questions in another world forever and could not be executed again, because he would not die. Of course, if the way he used dialectics is really as described in the complaint, then the hatred of others for him can be well explained: all the wives in Athens will unite against him.
Dialectical method is only applicable to some problems, but not to others. Perhaps this can help us determine the characteristics of Plato's research, because most of his research can be handled in this way. In addition, under the influence of Plato, most later philosophers were bound by the limitations caused by his method.
Some things are obviously not suitable for this treatment-such as empirical science. It is true that Galileo used dialogue to promote his theory, but that was only to overcome people's prejudice. The positive reasons he found would be very artificial if they were inserted into the dialogue. In Plato's works, Socrates always seems to draw out the knowledge that the heckler already has; To this end, he compared himself to a midwife. But when he applied this method to the geometric problems of Phaedo and Meno, he had to ask some leading questions that no judge allowed. This method is consistent with the memory theory, because according to the memory theory, our learning is only due to recalling what we already knew in previous lives. But contrary to this view, let's consider any kind of discovery made with a microscope; For example, it is hard for us to think that this kind of knowledge can be inferred from a person who knows nothing about it through questions and answers.
Socrates' therapy is suitable for those things that we have enough knowledge to draw correct conclusions, but because of our confusion or lack of analysis, we have failed to make the best logical use of what we know. Questions like "What is justice" are obviously suitable for discussion in Platonic dialogues. We all use the words "justice" or "injustice" casually. As long as we look at the way we use these words, we can sum up the definition that best suits our habits. What is needed here is only knowledge about how these words should be used in the question. But when our discussion came to a conclusion, what we did was a linguistic insight, not an ethical insight.
However, we can also apply this method to a wider range of situations. As long as the argument is about logic rather than facts, then discussion is a good way to discover the truth. For example, some people say that democracy is good, and whoever has a certain point of view should not vote; Then we can draw the contradictory conclusion of this man and prove to him that at least one of his two statements is more or less wrong. In my opinion, logical errors are more practical than many people think; People who make such mistakes can take turns to take their own comfortable views on each topic. Any logically consistent theory must have some painful parts that are contrary to popular prejudice. Dialectical methods-or, more broadly, the habit of free debate-help to improve the consistency of logic, so it is useful in this respect. But when its purpose is to discover new facts, this method is completely unworkable. Perhaps we can define "philosophy" as the sum of all discussions that Plato's method can pursue. But if this definition is appropriate, it is because Plato has an influence on later philosophers.